1 20 125 https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/50/SpaceJournal_1957-Summer_LowResolution.pdf 1213a4b8a297ab9378c6e5ec9338cc6a PDF Text Text ���������������������������������������������������� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 1., Summer 1957. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rocket City Astronomical Association Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1957 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Still Image Text Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacejournal_1957_summer Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Astronautics Observatories Propulsion systems Redstone missile Satellites Space flight to Mars Oberth, Hermann, 1894-1989 Description An account of the resource This issue of <i>Space Journal</i> includes articles written by Fred L. Whipple, Hermann Oberth, and Ernst Stuhlinger, as well as a foreword by Wernher von Braun. The issue also includes drawings for an observatory to be built at the top of Monte Sano Mountain in Huntsville, Alabama. Produced by the Rocket City Astronomical Association (now known as the Von Braun Astronomical Society), <i>Space Journal</i> was published in Huntsville from 1957 to 1959. This digitized copy was generously provided by Jeff Bennett at the Von Braun Astronomical Society (VBAS). Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/60/spc_schl_007_058a.pdf 5fc365b722840fa417d4dd33bab2f6e5 PDF Text Text SPRING 19S8 50.¢' • FATHER OF ROCKETRY Rolph I . Je nnings • LIFE ON OTHER STARS Dr. Ernst 5tuhlinge r • THE REMARKABLE 'X' CRAFT fre d e ri(k I. Ordway III • ROCKET MAIL TO THE MOON Dr. Harold W . Ritchey �~ ENG..); Exp loring New Concepts Of Precision Design, .. /UUJMUHl.- EERING , IN C. Engin eering And Manufacture Of: AUTOMATION, SERVOS, MACHINES, SPECIAL GAGES, MACHINING MISSILE COMPONENTS, AND FABRICATING. 2300 CLIFTON ROAD NASHVILLE, TENNESS EE TEL. BR 7·0566 .. �r spa ce journal content s Vol. I, No.2 Spring 1958 de~i gn p ~ tented FRONT: L"yout and mooring by H ll rry Ltlnge. Sketch is space 5hip by Dr. Robert H. Godd,trd. Photo of Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger's ion space ships orbiting around Mars is from Walt Disney's "Mars and Beyond." BACK: Oil painting by Le e Moore illustrates die m a r~er dissipa _ tio n upon impact of first rocket to reach Moon. BOARD Of CONSULTANTS Df. W or nner "on B,~ un P r, Ern, t St uh lin ge r Prof. Her monn Ob. ,th HI ITOR_iN_CHIEF 4 SPACE JOURNAL ____ So Spencer Isbell I STRIDE INTO SPACE ________________ The New York Times 8. Sp enco r l , b. 1I EDITORIAL STAff ___ _____ ____ ____ R"'lph E. Je nn ings Rolph E. J onning ' MM~q . rg Editor James L. D~ n i . I •. Jr. A"oc i&t o Edi tor Milch. 1I R. Sh. rp e, Jr. A"oc;&te Eddor David L. Ch,i,t en' en A"i,loot Editor 21 __ ___ _ ___ __ Dr. Ernd St uhlin g er ______ Or. Ha ro ld W . Ritchey THE REM A RKAB LE 'X ' CRAFT ________ Fre deri ck I. Ordway III G RAPHICS STAff Lee R. Moore, Jr. ___ _____ _ ___ _ ___ __ __ sp",ce pre view ___ __ ___ _ _______________ space cadoons ___ __ __ _____ _ ___________ __ _ _____ reaction Dir.ctor H .re ld E. Price G r .p~·c, Loyou t Oi,,,olo, H."y H .-K. Lon go Ad Diredor E. . .. 1t H. Ro b. ,ho n Phot09r5phy DirecTor 35 BEYOND THIS STAR __ ____ _________ ___ J a mes l. Da niels, Jr. BUS INE SS STAFF Yew,,11 Lybrond Jomo. P. GMdMr Geor90 A Ferre ll GENERA L MAN AG ER R,<h.,d T. H•• ~y PUIIUSHER St., e y ~_ ~o , n. Jr , SPECIAL CRt DIT S Of. Photo~ .. p~, ono mot.".1 10' · ·F.t~ .. 01 Rook.h," COPY"9hted ono "ere I"n',o.d b. M". E"he. C. Godd •• d· mo'. r;.1 fo' "Mo" .,d ~y<>"d" .. e'. f"",,t-od by Con Podoroon: ··Oul·O,," Spoc. ·· <",'oon' ... ~r. c,U'ed by Con f~d . ""n 0.<1 O.;,V L.,go: . ,1100', 0';on fo' "$'r:de in'. S".~o· -, b, Gordon W; lI h:le "0 leo Moo,. : ."1""";0" '". "'Lde 0 ' 0''", St.,," .'. by Iho", o, ,pe,oO' o"d He;" 0 . ,de,ell. : -llu,". "'" 10' 'R<x~.' Moi' '0 ,~. Moon" i, b, Lee "'00'. ' .,0 ,11 " ,1'."0"' fo, "Boyo"o I~" St. , "' .,. b, Ho", H _K, L. n~ •. Pho'09roph, OI od i " ' M." ' ,,o 8eyo,d" .'. cop"i9h,.d by W.lt O'"ey p,odo""""'. CON TRIBUTORS R<»~ M_ Motto" )e'l HamiU",. "'oll~ Doe Scott. M oo~ ) e"""~' , " I, i, Ho".,d. Go'don D. WIII,'I. . ",I, . E. ~ om. ,_ eo. Ped.",on. Horol" EMon , SUBSCR IPTION INfO RMATIO N Un ;lod S·ol., ond Coo.d. $2 p'" v'o ' . Fo.ei~n $3 per ' ' ' ' . ~I"'e ""d . U 9~ , N•• ,,,,II •. TO"""M . PUBLISHING INfORM ATION SP"CE Jo"ool i, p,bl',hed q"ortdv by Spooo E, ·.,p·:,.,. Inc :, P: 0 , a", 9~. No,,· " d l. T.,,",,ee '0' SP"Cf Jo,,".1. 1.< .. A Mop,oli! 0'9"""" '0" 01 'n. Rode' Cily' ",-,ooo", i<o l """,,;.';0' , H o" """.' "I.b.m •. All molor;.1 copV';~".o b, ~~"ce Jo" ••1 Inc ~ ep,,,d"<I;on of ""y "'''''0" " .I~oul """0 ' po""'" on ., pm· n;b;,.d _ ~,io'eJ '" U. S_ " . Space E"e",,, •• , 10<. , (;eo'jO J. 1.10" " P'e.,oe"" SIM'e r F, Horn J r. V,Pre •. : R:e'.'o l. H e.~v , V· , ••. ; Thom., Sent.I., . Secre-.,,, M."" I $"",,,,.,, T, .. , _: L E. Nordho ld, hod W,i~M. D;,.<I"" . ED ITOR IAL I N fO RMAll,)!>! "" "'OOUIO'-P," ",",I b. IV,,'''':''o. 000 "bmitted ;0 d,o li<. te "ith t.'"to po,lo~o ;j tho •• ,e '0 b. '"'" '"eo , Soou,ity <I. or._,,;:e fo, . 11 Mo'o,i.1 "b""neo " tho ,.""", ib;IiIV 01 the ._,hot . S.,d . 11 ",o",e.,p," 10 Spooe Jo",'ol , P. O . Bo, 82. H",,,,, ill •. AI.bom • . "bsc,:ptio", '0 SPACE Jo",oo l, 1o, journa l K~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _space _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ �(OITORIAL g \'Iit~ spa ce j ournal By B. Spencer I sbell .ditor P UTNIKS a nd now our own Explorer ha\"e changed a 101 of things b)' opening the eyes of Ihe p ublic to t he bct lllal space tra ' <c] has become :1 re:llil)'. As ),ou might guess, the impact of 5.1tellite launching s upo n this fledgling publication has lx.'1!n ,·ery favorable. One ne ws comtllenn<lor SHItN. " It (SpUllI ik) has shot treme ndous Ihr ust inlO whal sla rlt.'"<l Oul as AmeriC:L·S fi rst, fa lteri ng space magazine called SPACE JOllrnal-dcdi. GIlt.'<:! to publicizing fa CHIal discussions of interphLnetary m l,·e]." S The St.'Cond edilion of SPA CE J Ollrn(l1 was prepared prior 10 thc birth of Explo re r; and , therefore, il was iml>ossibie 10 exploit Ihe \"aSI amount of new information for inclosure in this edi lion, Tht"!re is liule doubt that Explorer will h:l\e its effe.:;:t on expandi ng the horizon for SPAC I~ Jour n:.!. Volume I, No. I broughl many ··lellers to the C(litor·'; (I few arc published in {his ed ition's Re action Department. Amo ng other things. some tellers requcsted predictions of what thc future will bring in Ihe realm of space ltavel, explanations of rclativistic agi ng, a nd repon s on whal progress has been made toward de,·elopi ng an '"electro-Sta"itic" propulsion s),slem for space ships. Forthcoming issues will include articles which will atte m pt 10 satisfy these requests. The next issue will includc ~.n :lr(icJe on what we have al re"dy learned (rom Explo rer. \~ith due respect for our more imlgina ti,·e readers, we wero;: mo rc impresscd-and should add , quite concerned- by the volume of mail rcceiv(.""(1 from our younger (a ns. AI· mOSt illva ri ~. bly the)' wanted detailed information th:.t would help them to bu ild t heir ow n rockets ( usually proposed as :. basemem project ), These young people "pvc"r resourceful, if11 ngimLl ive, and capable of SOIlLC startli ng acco mplishments. Thc)' will be our neXI ge neration of scienlists and e ngi neers. \X'hile t heir quest for knowledge and experience is certainly laudable, the dangcr to life and p roperty in herent in amateur rocke t building and fi ring ohen creates a highly undesi.l:able situatio n. This d ~L ngcr is recognized by the professional engineer :ond scientist. as well as the org:l!l i ~:lt i ons actively c ng~l gl'"<l in rocket and missile work. Dr. E<!w:lrd H. Sey mo ur, Director of l{cse:.rch at It eaction " ·I otors, Inc., has prcpared a SF.eei a] !cner to young scient ists. \'\fe feel Ih:1I il may help an evcr- increas ing n umber of youngste rs who a rc interested in und ertaki ng o;:xperimems of th is type. 2 sp",ce iournal �r TO T H E AMATEUR ROCKET BUI LDER W e were happy to ' <.'eein' your recent [clter. a nd 10 Jearn of your plan' for a n cxpu imcmal rocket. T he rocket engine is an intriguing dC"icc, and working On ils develop m ent Can be an inle r~5'inS manufacturers. we arc encouraged 3I w3)" and ,,,.idying I'roje<:l. (0 As r ocket engine sec young people become c nl hus;as!;, about this area of ani"ily, for i, is you ng men like you who will be Ihe e ngineers a nd scientists of to m o r row and bdping .0 maiola in progress in this vital field . Alt hough the approach 10 a n experimental \",i1 such as yOIl oudi ned a p pea rs re aso nable, we have found .h a. it is n ol po.,ible for U5 10 determine t he fea sihility, Or c"en mOre importan t. the sa fet), of such ;' unit wi.hout more informa· lion. All cxpc;rimcnta l work must be reviewed carcfullr to determine how cal"h pic~e is to be built, and what trpc of operating procedure is to be u \.ed. use 'he Sa me approach in our work. \'ife Each new d c, isn is carcfulLr ch ecked , " nd teStS arc ru n with cucfully planned an d supervised procedures. Almost all rocket engine test ing, esp(>ciallr new designs, is done behind explosion_proof. a re s.~fely re inforced COnaete barricades, separatcd from the uoit undcr ,cst. training and c05tl)" ~q ui p m ent, this ro " wh~r~ a ll Ol",rating T o t he am a teur, w;thou, of rl:s~arch pl:rronnd ext~nsi"e is extremely hazardou s. For your own sa fl:!)" as wcll as till: safNy of ot hcrs. we Cannot emphasize tOO st ron);"ly the dangers inhcrcnt in this typc of work. Ox ),!;en and propane, for instance, contain more enNgy p<! r I>ound than dox'S TNT, J( it h appens to be rdcasc<l explosi"ely instead of in normal bu r ning, considerahle danlage and injury can OCCur. am so rry we Can nOt give yOu a mOre dire<:t answer to yonr qucs! ion, but experience h as shown u s that i. is no< p ossible to do th is without being r ight on ,he sJ>Ot e"ery day, and th e importance of avoiding injury and damagl: is so );"rea t that we fecI . ha t this must be our p olicy. I would urge ,hat )'ou diseu" rour planned work w ith your high school se;ence t each~r, "nd inve~'i~ate .It~ possiltili.y of form ing an amateur r ocket cl ub. It is far beuer to .ha re wi.h o thers the joyS and h a rd ships, f~ilures, (and incidentallr, th e ~xpen",s) of work on such an th ~ Successes ,.nd <:xcitin~ l"oj"'t. Th e, e are a number o f such sroups throughout th e country, m any o f th em affiliated wi th th e Ame rican Astronautical Fed~ra .ion, a "ational organization dedica.ed 10 th e coll",. ion "nd di.,."minmion of inform'lti on and th e promotion of space flight, or with t he Ame r;can R oc k~t Soci~ty. W h~ther ro n form s nch a gro up or nOt, an)' fu.ure wo rk you d o shou ld be u n der the guidance of a rC'lponsibIe adult such as your s.:ience teach~r, Should you d <><:ide to follow . he i,,,crest you h a,'c already shown in this field, and we ce rlain l}' hope ro u d o, you will be coming into an ex~iting pro· fessio n at th e m OSt d"""a,ic ,iml:. T hroushout the co u rse of history. man h as always bc<: n intrigued b y exp loration of t his blan k e. of air that surrounds u s. lII"ny o f his attem p ts to pie rce it. including Some o f those c urrem lr in progress, h a "e '",en pla gued wi th failure. Nonetheless, he has p<!rsi;ud w ith a wi ll to SUC· ceed that has put wi thin our srasp the means to accomplish hi s m ost fascinating drea m-fl ight into outer space. Dr. Edward H . ~~'mour Director o f Research R eaction lII otors, Inc. 3 space journal -"--------------------------------------------------------- �S PACE PHILOSOPH Y stri de into space R ep ri n t ed F rom The New York T imes A J.R EADY NOW it is clear that O Ctober 4, 1957 will go dow n imperishably in the annals o f humanity as th e date o n which o ne of mail's fi llest a<:hievements was acco m pl ished, That which WOlS so recent ly a subject only for theoret ical speculatio n or sciellce fi ctioll h;ls now become re;IIi!},: a ma n ,made sp ace s.:ue!!it e now revoh'cs, for a time, around o u r globe. \x/ ilh t hat feat h um anit y has mke n a gi:m t stride toward space. The dream of the greatest minds amo ng mllny past generat io ns is now well on the way to ward becoming reality. The sphcre which now revolves in t he he avens ;.bo\,c us is t he guarlllllce that m an ca n soon brc:ok comple tely the fetlers of grav ity which have hitherto bound life to thi s tiny planet. The long road to the stars is now open . It was the Soviet scie nti sts lind lechnidans who bui lt :Lnd laun<:h(.-d this concrete sy m bol of mall's com ing lihcrlltion from th e forces which have hitherto bou nd him to earth . To them m ust go the congratula _ tions of all humanity. This is a feat of which lIll mankind Call be proud . The $oviet cit i..-;ens w ho accomplish(,-d it set the peak on a huge tower w hi ch h,Ld bee n raised by men of ma ny nlllions in t he decades and cenruries earlier. Newl'On and Ke p ler, Galileo and Cope rni cus. Tsiolkov_ sky, God dard and Obcrth, al! these and many others m;ode their contributio ns to buildillg the edifice of knowledge which made possible th is superlati ve Olchievelllent_ Every great ;ochievcment o f modern wehnology o pe ns up two rollds before humanity. One is the road of hope and pro m ise, a road made possible if m en of a ll n atiOIlS li nd all beliefs will work IOgether for the good of humanit}'. The o t he r is the rOlld of despair and di saster, the rOlld which is 4 space journal followed if t he great ach ie"ements of un ive rsa l scie nce arc used for the purposes of aggression , death and destruction, So it is w ith the space siltelli{e. The rocket m OlOrs wh ich se n t it inlO the upper atmosp here can be harnessed for a great cooperative h um an assault on the barriers of diswnce whic h still sepa ra te us from c,'en o ur nearest neighbors in space. Or they can be incorporatc<1 inw in tercontinental ballistic missiles deliveri ng hydrogen bombs upon defcnscles.s milliOIlS. It is fo r a ll ma nki nd ('0 <Iecide which of these tWO roads shall be mken. And the fantastically rapid lCmpo of modern scienti fiC a nd technical advance perm its no dawdli ng over reaching the dec ision. �.. DEDI CATI ON lathe r 01 rocketry B y R alph E. J enn i ngs (ED ITOR 'S "';OTE: Th., aUlhor i, indebted to Esther C. Goddard for making available 10 him p;clures and ;nforn,,,I;on " 'hieh han nen,. before been published. In a lener .0 Mr . Jenning'- Mrs. Goddard ,Ia.ed : ' 1 am delighled Ihal rou plo,,, 10 dediC'llle Ih", $oCCond i,we 10 m}' La.e hU5band and hi, work on rockets." SPACE Journa l lakes prioe in presenling ' 0 ;IS r",aucu ,om" hilherlo "np"blisheo on,,,er;.L concerning .he life ami work of a g,,,,at Am",ican sdenl;sl. ) he ao;:quired h is M.A. and Ph. l). Aher l WO years as a resea rch fellow at P rinceton Uni,·e rsit)'. he went 10 Clark Unh·crsi l)' where he was 5ucccssi"ely lin instructor. assista nt p rofessor. and professor of physics. While at Clark. Dr. Godd ard set down some recol1eo;:tions w hkh began: "Owing to t he widespread intcrest whic h is certain to a r ise ItHer regardi ng space navig:l{io n, o r T il E Fm ST t:LlG HT of :1 liqu id oxygen-gasoline rocket w~s obtai ned on Marc h 5, 1926, in Auburn , Mass., and was reponed 10 the Smi lhsonian Institution May 5. 1926... . The rocket lraveh.'<1 a distance of 184 fccr in 2.5 seconds, as timed by SlOp watc h, making the speed along the traje<:tor)' abouI 60 miles per hour." Thus wrote Robert Hutchings Goddard in his second Smithsonian repot!. " Liquid-Propellant Rocket De,·elopmenl." \X/ hat seemed 10 be an insignificant evenl aCtuall)' marked the binh of a new era. For when Robert Godda rd's rocket lra,eled 184 fec i. the distance was a step fo r ward in sc"en-Ieague boots b), Ma n in h is long str uggle up from darkness toward maSter), of his c n,·ironmenl. In t hc words of Har ry F. Guggenheim, presidellt of the Guggenheim Foundat ion, Dr. Godd:lrd "was iusI as surcl)' the fa ther of modern rocketS as the \V r ight Brothers were of t he airplane." H e was o;:erw in ly the greatest experime ntal pioneer in this subjecl- nOt (I mere d (lbbling inventor, but one w ho unde rstood t he pr inciples involved and was capilble also of developing the nec(.'Ssar), t heor ies, as was to be expco;:ted from a man with his suco;:essful academic career. Bo rn o n October 5, 1882, in \X' ora'ster, Mass., young Goddard attended school in Doston and then entered \\'I'o ro;:eSle r Polytechnic Institute, obtaining a B.S. degree in 1908. He was a ph)'sics instrunor at \'(lo rceSter until 1911, d uring which period COPY I!lGIIT IlY ),IRS. 1I01l ~:RT II. GOOOAltO Dr. Roherl H. Goddard lIlakillg adjustmellts at tbe upper elld oftbe rockel com· busrioll chulIlber. ArOll1lt1 tbe cbamber are slIIa/l coils oj copper tubillg for "aporizillg liqllid lIitrogell ill order to "rodllce pressure for the Juel tallits alliJ Jor opera/· illl{ cOlltro/s. PUIII/JS were used Jor Ille /iqllM Jlle/s. Pbolograpbel/ ill 1940. 5 space iournal �record of suggestions..•• T he suggestions wcre very dh'c rsified, and concerned the possibility of using the magnetic field of the eanh; sllCOting ' nllteria l to a 'spacc ship' by means of elcclric, and other , guns; an airplane opera ted lit high speed by lhe repu lsion of charged particles; :Irtificiall y stimu lated rodio-activil),; artificial atoms of g reat energy, consist ing of mov ing posili\'e nnd negative charges; p ropulsion in space by repu lsioll of charged panicles; reaction agai nst dis p lacement Currents in space; re· sltmds frame before tbe world's first flight 01 a liquitl-propclltlill rocket 011 i\larch 16, 1926. interpl nnemry studies, it seems wonhwhile to nOte t he developme nt of the writer's ideas a nd experiments upon the su bject . . Dr. Goddard neve r published these notes. \,(I h:1I he published principally we re his p:ltcnlS and twO repons to the Smit hsonian Institution, the product of yea rs of independent and methodical experimenta tion. ''<'hat he did not p ub lish were h is spec u lations on sp:lce flight-Ix.'Cuusc he thoug ht more of them, not less o f them. At o ne point, he fil ed these spt.'Cui;ltions a way in a fr iend'S S:lfe and ma rked (hem: "To be op'ened on l)' by an o p timise" They are now being opened, in the cou rse of prep:lring Dr, Goddard's biogr:l_ phy. Mrs. Godda rd is engaged in editi ng h is expcrimem:il nOtes for publication. Scie n tistS and laymen alike wi ll be interested in Dr. Goddar<i's resume of some of these speculations whic h he set down between 1904 ami 1908 wh ile he was an undergraduate nt 'X/orccstcr. " I bought a n umbe r of green-cown.-d notebooks," he w ro te, "and started to make a systemat ic 6 space journal thelter III Jhe If/tlrtt Farm, Aubllrll, i\ltlJS. PholoC",ph ttlRe,t 0 11 Jllly /7, 1929, pulsion o f high ly healed materi:d particles at the focus of parl~ bolic mirro rs; Ihe lise of solar energy, by light de\·iccs. on u 's pace sh ip;' th e idea of the mu hiple charge rocket ; the usc of liquid p rope llants; a nd several other plans." A su mmary of 26 methods was w r inen on December 28, 1909. Like other men of vision who have made " a lllable contributions to fund ame ntal and his im portant wo rk were lill ie known Juring his lifetime. In Ihe cou rse of h is pioneering im 'csligations, I)r. Goddard achieved m any "fi rSts" in rocket research, anyo ne of which would be sufficien t 10 assu re him a permane n t phlcc in the history of mo<lern science and eng i n(.~ ri ng. �7. He deveLo]X-J thc mathern,nica! theory of rocket propuLsion and flight . 8. H e fi rst proved. both mathemat icaLLy a nd by actual test, that a rocket will work in a vacuum. \'('hen the United St(ltes entercd the fi rst \'('orld \'('ar, Dr. Goddard volunteered his services and was given the task of exploring the military possibilities of roc kets. He succeeded in developing a trajectory rocket which (ued intermine[J{ly, tllc charges be· ing injected imo the comhUSl ion chamber by a method simi lar to tha t of tbe repeating r ifle. H e also devcJo]X-J sewral types of projectile rockets intended to be fired from a launching tube held in the hands ,IOU steadied by twO short legs--much like the bazooka of \'('orld \'\!ar U. Dr. Godd,ml ill bh laborato r), at Clark UlIiI·ersity witb tbe rocket tested 011 May 4, 1926. Tbis rocket h tbe second "//Iodel 0/ a iifJllid-propeU'1II1 rocket first f/OWII 011 Ma rc/) 16, 1926, Amo ng the principal oncs arc the following : 1. He developed the basic idea of the bazooka in 1918 during \'('orld \'('ar 1. The weapon was nor uscd until \,\'orld \'('ar H. 2. He developed a rocket motor using liquid fuels and uscd it in a liquid· fuel propelled rocket in L926. 3. H e was Ihc first to shoot a rocket faster tha n the speed of sound. 4.. H e developed a gyro5Copic steering apparatus for rockets ten years before it was developed in Europe. 5. He was thc first to use vanes in the blast of the rocke t motor for steering rockets. 6. H e patented the idea of "step-rockets." These weapons were demonstrated quite successfully at Aberdeen P ro,·ing Grounds 00 Novembe r 10, 1918, before represcnt~'· ti ves of the ~lrmed services. However, the armist ice on the foLLowing d:,y pllt an end to the war and also to immediate interest in these weapons . .i.\"lany a great man owes much of his success to the loyaLty, devotion, and eacourage· ment of a woman who is vitally interested in his career. These qua lities were brought into Dr. G oddard·s life by Esther Kisk whom he married in 1924. She took an acri,'e ioterl'st in his experiments and served as the official photographl'r of his tests. Dr. Goddard's resea rch and exper iments during (he oext twO decades were summa rized in twO papers, "A Metho<l of Reaching E"Heme Altitudes" and ·' Liquid-Propella n t Rocket Development." These tWO famous reports d id much to estabL ish on a world· A rocket tested 011 Jill)' 10, 1927. Note tbe similarit), of arrallgemel/l to Jbe V ol. 7 space journal . �w ide basis the sc:entific and engineering w lues in rocket nnd jet propulsion research. Dr. Goddard even made some tests to fi nd OUt how much powder would be required to make a Rash visible at a dista nce of 2!4 m iles, lind from this he c:.lcu lated thllt II rocke t weighing about 3 \4 Ions would be requ ired to carry sufficient Rash powde r to make a visible fl ash o n the moon. He went o n to make fhe further r.It he r vague state· ment (G odd ard's imlics): "Th is pla n of sendin g a Illass of flas h powder to the su r· f:"c o f the moon, althoug h a maner of ru m;\, gencnd interest, is not of o b vious sciemi fi c importance, There are, howeve r, tICI'eio/wHlm s 01 Jhe gelle l'nl lIIe/botl under t/i1cuSlioll, wbicb ;1I1'o h 'e n IIlIlIIber of im· portallt fealllres 1I0t herei.. mcntioned, whic h cou ld lead to results of m uch scien· t ific in teren. T hese developme nts invoh'e nlany experimenta l d ifficulties, to be S\Ire; b ut th e)' depend upo n noth ing tha t is really im l>ossible." It may be arri"ed at by con· jL'Cwre that the unspecified de"elopments might be tIl ken to include manned inter. p\ane("olr), It;H·C!. Dr. Goddl. rd 's precocious talents and prophetic w ri tings are analogous (0 those of Leonardo da Vinci whose original and dar· ing theories might we ll ha"e revolutio ni zed the thollght of h is day had they been ex· tracted earlier from his "oluminous manu· scripts, whic h remai ned unpublis hed until recent ti mes. Dr. Goddard 's proposal to explode :. load of flash J>owuer o n the moon set o ff a Roman Holiday nmong newspaper men. The idea of it blinding man·ma<\e flash on the Illoon c:'ptureu t he imagina t ion of the public, And (0 compou nd the excite· ment, Ih is was nOt tho! in5:Ule proposal of th e stCreotYI'L-d l':lflUloid scientist of comic strip lore who slirround<.-d hi mself in his slu m attic w it h bubbling caldrons of green mist. It was the ide:. of a d isciplined, p sp;:holog ically well.adjusted teache r of ph ysicS. It wns the p roposal of a man who rocket ;11 t be sbop a' R oswell, Neill ,\ lex;co, 011 f eb",ar) 6, 1940. i /lfscd ,"'!liPS jor fllels alld II'US approximalel)' 1Z feet IOllg, 8 space journal �r AmeriC"J. n magaz ines on an ar licle which presu med to suggesl Ihllt ato m ic energy would onc d ay propel II rocket into inlerplanetar), space. One edilor rep lied: " The speculation is imeresling, but the impossi. bility of e,'e r doing it is so cen a in th at it is nOI p rac tically useful. You have writlen well a nd clearl y, but nOI helpfu ll y to science as I SC(! il.. I relUrll the p aper wi th thanks:' Specul at ion on whether our ge ne rat ion will li"e to see the p redictions of Robert Hutchings Godd nrJ become real ized fans is not of pa ramount concern. Bllt whet her (here is 10 be li n llggressivc con tinu ation of fund amental research in n climate of tolera nce is the concern of eve r)' li"ing Ame rica n. It is imperative Ihnt such a climate incl ude aid, encouragement, and prop· er recog nilio n for men like Goddard who in spite of tC1:hnical d ifficullies, disbelief, and ri dicu le persist wi th dogged reso lu tion u nt il they rea lize the ir a ims. The true fu lfillmem of our hopes for a p<'IIceful a nd beuer world lies in the (ru it of the ir labors. Tbe begimling oJ a fligbt 011 March 17, /938. Th e IIi/mch;II!; lou'er shows a calapull arrill/gell/em, had eMlled his Ph.D. in his ow n flcld and who us a commissioned office r had improved sisnal rockclS for the Navy. 10 addition, Dr. Godd nr<I's work had the blessings of the Srnithso ni:w Institution. A few months :ther Dr. Goddard had been elecled 10 t he BOil Td of Directors of the Amc riClm Rocke l Society, he died on AugllSI 10, 1945. " The life·wo r k of Goddard," wrote th e di rcclOrs. "both as a scientist and a man, will always remain a brillian! inspira. t io n 10 those who are privileged to carry o n his e ndeavors, and 10 enr}' other bold explorer on the frontiers of science. In lime 10 come, h is name will be SC I among the foremos t of American Icchnical pioneers." Fifty )'clln ago, in Ja nuary, 1907, Goddard as II SlUde nt lit Worcester Tech received rejcclion lette rs from Ihree highl y esleemed 9 space journal . �SPAtf. AMALYSIS lif' on oth,r stars B y Ern s l Stuhlinger di,.ctor, , . ,u,ch projuh ollie. .,my b.lli,!;c, millil •• ~.ncy (Editor. ,.ot~: This is ,he firs. inn.llmenl of • Ihree·part arlide. The Olhe. ' ....0 parIS ....·ill follow in l ubsequenl iss ue, of 51'ACE Journal). N l:ORMER TIMES there was no q uestion about life on other stars. The com· mon belief followed a literal interpretation of the teachings of the Dible. Our earth was though I 10 be the center of the uni\'e rse, the only place inhabited by Ih'ing beings. At Ihe lime of creation all the plants and aninlaiJ had come into exislence as they arc now, acco rding to ODe well-conceivcd master plan. No change occurred-no development, I Figll'tJ 1. Relative sizes 0/ Ihe plalJeIl al letJlI 10 space journa l no expansion. The nalura l K iences, 100 much in their infancy, a nd 100 stricli)' limilcd to a selcclcd few, did nOl provide enough cogen! evidence to the conlrary to make a mooificadon of this com mon belief necessary. Some few hundred years ago, the h uman mind entered into a new phase of itS evolution. It developed an inquisiti\'e curiosity 10 know morc about the worid. Tooay our earth is no longer accepted as the perfect masterpiece of one six-day creation. It is recognized as a small planet among billions f,011l fbe e(.frtb. �PLUTO, . -1 • MOO N, . '0,27 • MERCURY I • r - 0.39 MAR S, . -0.52 • VE NUS, .. 0.97 • EARTH •• -!.O NEPTUNE •• >3.9 URANUS , r - 4,0 Pigure 2. Relati ve shes of the plal/ets. and bi ll ions of Stars in a boundless universe. E\"olution, not perfection, setS the grandiose stage on which we are the actors and the Spcct:ltots as well. We came to realize that the human mind has the capability of learning and, to a certain degree, of unde rsrand· ing how this world came into being, how it is built, and how it de\'elops. To Ihe \'isible world a rou nd us which was accessi ble to our forefathers, modern scientists h;n 'e pdded ncw wo rlds: the world of the tHoms, ;md the world of the stars. \Xle ha\e fOUlul tlmt there :Ire universal h.w5 of natu rc va lid equally in th ese three worlds which help us to unde rstand their interrelations and some of thei r mystcries. The natural sciences today offer uS the foundation for a concept of the world which is nor o n ly more correct, but also much grcater, a ~d far lIlore magnificent, th om any concept our forefathers could de\"elop in their tilnes. Life o n other stars ? It would have been a profanity in medieval times 10 believe that it might ha"e existed. Today this q uestion is one of the 11100t challenging problems of science. There is hardl y onc grea t scho lM who d ocs not g ive it his attention, and many of t hem arc rew;Lrdcd br brill iant new ideas. The remarkable fact is that e\'ery branch of natu ral science bears upon t his problemastro nomy. physic~, chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology, and all the others. Once we have the answer, its impact will be felt C\'en b r sciences as sublime as philosophy and theology. The questioo of whether life exisUi outside th e bounds of ollr earth cannOt be answered by a plain yes or 00 tod ay. If the answer should be positive, it may well be th at ""c will have it as soon as a manned sutellite around the earth offers a platfor m fo r observations. \'\' 1' certainly will know when our (ust imerplane wry space ship takes us to t.hrs; and this nmy pmsibl)' happen be· fore the cnd of our centurr. It is anot her thing if we ask what the prubability is that life ex ists on other celes· tial bodics. \Xle know the external cond itions lI nder w h ich life was ab le to de\"e lop and subsist on earth. Wc know much abou t th e environmental conditions which prel'ail on other planets in our solar sy5teOi. and cven on other fi xed stars. Comparing the necessary conditions lor life with the exist- II sp~ce journal �II ing conditio ns o n stars, we can conclude wit h a h igh degree of probability whe t he r lifc shoul<1 be cxpeclCd (here, a nd into what forms it may have dc,·eloped. This way of reasoning may seem rather bold. Howe,-cr , count less obscn~.l { i o n s o n t his ciln h have shown Ihm w henever the conditions for a certai n dc\C~ l opll1c[)[ a rc favo rable, natu re docs nOt hcs italc 10 sian this dc\·clopmcnt. Scientists arc confident that this Tille, so ohen confirmed on eaflh, may St ill be applied when the dC\'clopmclH is IIml of living organisms, a nd w hen t he place is nOt confined 10 this c:Lr\ h. Our original questio n about t he e xistence of life outside the ea r th, t he refore, reduces 10 the question of cnvironmcoml condi· tions on other Slars and of nlXessary condi . lions (or the development of life. These q uestions clI n be answered to a considerable degree uxl:.y, pa rt ially from d irect observa. tions :lIId experi ments, part ial ly fro m extra· pollH ions and log ica l de<;luc l ions. Althoug h we usually Ih ink of planets only when we discuss Ihe chances of finding life o n other celestial bodies, 1I't' sholdd II0t ol'ulook Iht' pOJSibility 0/ lift (Itf'tlQPillg Illso 011 Iht "("uk" COlI/fioU CIII of a dOl/ble jlllr, whe re lig ht and hea l wou ld be avail· able fro m Ihc "bri ght" com ponen t. In t he p rese m anicle we reSl r icl our considerations 10 p laner.like bodies whic h are much small· er than the central Slar t hat gives t hem light and hear, \X'e will div ide our sub ject fro m he re on into Th ree pans; T he as tro nomical as· FigJlre 4. T he Crab NebJlla, a Ieflof'er of " mPeNIQI'a e,.plQsiQIl i,1 /054 A.D . pc<:ts, t he physica l cond itio ns, and the biolog ical problem, The present article will dea l wit h the astronomical aspt.'(:15 o f life on othcr stars. \X' hen we Ihink of life o n orher celestial bod ies, we are incl ined 10 associate its I>ossible exislence wit h c nv i.ron melllal con· dilions as we havc t hem on o ur earth. T he average lemperattlfe should nOI be: al>o\'e 60 C to 80 C, and not m uch below the freezi ng point of water; the re should be a n atmosphe re wi l h at lcast somc oxygen or carbon d iox ide; Ihere shou ld be wate r; nnd Ihere should be occasional sunshine, or nn eq\livalellt smrsh ine. As we will sec hLter, these cond itions ilfe mandatory. T hat such an accumu latio n of condi lions lIlay well occur in planetnry s),StemS is proven by our own enrth. T he question is thclI: \X' hal is Ihe probability thai a pl:lnemr)' s),stcm like thc solar fam ily occurs among the fi xed Stars? De fore answe r ing th is q ues tion, we take a sho rt look at t he Structu re and the history of t he solar sys· tern, of our galaxy, and of th c stellar uni· "erse, Jiigure 3, Relati,'e tlis/at/eel o/Ibe platlets / rolll ,be Hili . �One of the mOSt impressive fe:lIures of t he solar syuem is the smallness of its componentS as compared to t heir distances. If we should build a model of the sun and ilS planets, a nd if we chose a sphere of three inches in diameter, for example. an orange for the su n , the planets would have the following diametcrs and distances: Mercury, 0.01 inches u 10 feet; Venus. 0.026 inches at 20 fcc t; earth, 0.027 inches at 27 fee t; !\lars, 0.015 inches at 40 feet; j upite r, 0.3 inches at 135 fcct; Saturn, 0.25 inches at 255 feet; Ura n us, 0.12 inches at 525 ft.'Ct; Neptune, 0.12 inc hes at 810 feet; Pl uto, wit h as )·et unknow n diameter, at 1,060 feet (Figs. I, 2 and 3.) In the same mode l, the nearest fixed star would h:1\'e a dista nce o f 1,000 m iles fro m the sun, and the e nd of our ga laxy would be 20 million miles away. Besides the nine planets, we find a belt of ma ny small astero ids berwecn the orbits of Mars and j upite r; about 1,500 of them ha\'c been ide ntified. The mass of the sun comprises about 99.8% of the tota l mass of the solar system; the planets only I:;gllrtl , . Th, big sp;rlll1leblllll ;" AmlroflleJIl. 0.2% . On the o ther hand, the combined angu lar momentum of the planelS is about 98%., and that o f t he su n 2%. of the total angular momentum of the system. The sun consists of o,'er 90% hydrogen; heavy clements arc rare. On the earth, heavy c lements arc much more abu nd ant. The composition of the planetS, disregarding thei r atmospheres, is "ery probably similar 10 that of the e;lrth. The la rge angular mOlllentum o f the p lanelS is a very strong p roof agains t the assumption that the planets were in former times a part of the su n, or e\'cn that the sun and Ihe planet5 werc formed in onc p rocess out of a big diffusc nebula. A more satisfactory expla natio n is possiblc only if anothe r star, in add ilion 10 the su n, is assumcd to havc participated in the plane. togcnic process. Theories by Chamberl in and Moulton, a nd in n very advanced and refined form by jeans, succeeded in describing many of thc detailed features of the solar syStems by assuming the closc approach of anOlher Stur. Gravitational �I forccs WQuld p rod uce huge tidal wa,"es a nd would c ,"en pull large amounts of mat· rer out of the $u n , in the form of II giga n tic " /illlnlcOI." This lila ment would finall y break up unde r ils own gravitation aod form a number of separate bodies wbich finally would mo'"c around the sun in plane. {'.try orbits. Their angu lar m oment um would ha\"e been provided by t he passing Slar. The s;\ffiC p la net-fo rming process would a lso accoun t for the moons of lhe pl:Lncls. One conspicuous faer remains 1I1lcxpinincd by this lhcory~thc fast rota· lio n of some of the pl:mcls. I n order to make this rot ation unde rsta ndable, J effreys supposes a "gm~ i ng collision " between a StH r and the sun, instead of n dose approach. Frictio nal forces, in addition to g ravita. tional forces, oou[(1 then accounr for the rotlu;omll motions o f Ihe planet. \'(' ilh t his assumplion, the obsen'ed rOtlllion and the total maS5 o f the planeu can be explained s.,t isfactor ily. Howe\'cr, the lurge :mgula r momelllum o f the planeu then remains a myStery. A new idea was introduced by R u~ 1I a nd de\'elop<.od further by Lynleton. They pointed out tlmt many of the Stars, almost one-half of them, a re twin nars, revolving arou nd each other at d istances w hich may count fro m aOOm a third of a light year down to less tha n the diameter of o ne of them. POI:lri S, ollr north sta r, is k nown to be II (I'lintupl et; CaSto r is e\'cn composed of six indi vidual Sta rs, all orbiting Mound ellc h other. R usse ll ass\lllled Ihat our sun hlLd a [win, 100, 0.1 about the dist;mce of the major planets. This twin was hi T and snmshc,d to pieces by anot her star. Some of the frag ments re mained in solar orbits; they a rc our planets now. This theory is able to explain Ihe rota· lio n. Ihe angula r momenrUlll, t he distances, a nd many o ther features of the planets. lis sho rtcoming is the eXlremeiy sm;11I prob. a bility for a direct hit between stau. To help th is situation, Hoyle made the sug· 14 space journal geslion that t he tw in Star may nOt hn\'e been h it by another sta r, but may ha\'e go ne through the naturJI cycle of its e\'olution, w hic h terminatc<l in a C:lIaclysmic explosion. The hea\')' pieces of this ex· plosion were hurled fa r Out inro sJY.Ice; a huge cloud o f gases a nd dust remained in the sola r gra\'itado na l fiel d , but with the angular Illo men tu m which was left over from the twin sta r. This gas and d ust cloud first spread OU I arou nd the sun in a riog. shaped disk, but later il contracted into discrcte blobs becausc of eddy currents and gravilllliona l inst1lbililies. Most of the mass contained in (he g(IS nnd dust cloud was finally concenlrnted in the ninc planets. This th,--'Ory of planetary origin is part of a comp rehensive "New Cosmology" by H oyle and L),ltletOn. Allhough it is by no means free of conlro\ersies, it offers very intriguing desc ri pl ions o f the life cycles of 5(,ITS, of their energy hal;lIIce, and of the ir compositio ns. T he explosion of the sun's twin sta r, in the light of this theor)", would be a "supernO\'a," the laSI phase of o ne specific grou p of SUles called supergiants. Three supernovae were observed within our ga laxy in historic t imes: the firs t was seen in 1054 by the Chinesc; rhe second in l 572 by T ycho Brahe; :I nd the third in 1604 by Keppler. The firSI 5u pe rnO'~1 left a gllscous mass, the well·k nown Crab Nebula ( Fig. 4), which has heen ex panding dur ing the paS t 9DO rears with a peri phcral velocity of abou t GOO miles per second. Supernova explosions arc kno wn from other galax ies. Their outburst of light is so treme ndous t hai they ca n be observed from the earth. Althou1,;h the final development sta1,;e of a supergi(lnt which leads to a supernova mo.)" weB extend o\"er millions of )Cars, the explosion itself I:1St5 only fo r a few da}s. T he frequency of supernova explosions, according to I),'ade a nd Zwicky, is about once in "DO or 500 rea rs per gal:lxy, a fi1,;\ue wh ic h agrees well with rhe three supern ovae ohscT\'ed wit hin OtiC ga laxy during the last 900 yea rs. �H oyle's theory is well Cllpablc of explain. ing many of the outstanding features of our planetary SYSlem. It e\'en explains why we find an abundance of heav)' e lemenu on tile planetS, but not on the sun; heavy nuclei a rc fo rmed in energy-consuming nuclear processes during the collapsing phase of a superg iant, shortly before its explosion. During this same phase it is likely t hat a supergiant emits electromagnetic waves which are obsen-cd by redia astron· omers on earth. The last phase of the entire process, the cont raction of the gas lind duST cloud into diSl; retC planets, has heen studied in great det:lil by von \'(feiz_ saecker. );xpanding Ihe law5 of fluid dyna mics to an aSlConomical scale, and Ill'plying them to the specia l case of II gas and dUSt cloud around the sun, he could derive many of the speci:11 properties which we observe in t he plane tary s)'stem. It cannot be said today whether this concept of planelogenesis comes close to the truth. H owever. it ~ms to lead to less controversies than older theories, and we may well IIdopt it unti l bener theodes are available. The probllbilities (or all the individual steps of {his planemry history can be est ima ted from observations and mathe· matical deduct ions; we finally can calculate how of len a planetary SYS{ClII may ha\'e ,Ie,-eloped within our galaxy since its beg in ning. Th is article is fa r tOO short to give an indiOltion of the demils of the various theories or of rhe methods of o bsen'ation and reasoning which a rc applie<1 by aStrOnomers to o bmin n u merical resultS. The rollow ing !l umbers a nd f'gure$ are there_ fore only transmitted as (acts without fu rther arguments. Pigllrtl 6. A Sla r 'cloud' ill SagilJarills. This is onl) II lIl;'llll e porlion of the slars ,.isible i'J Olle glllax)'. lVi/bill Ibe ellrtb's range of absen'lltioll Ibere lire abOli1 100 mil/;oll ga/a:des. Each glllllX)' ilia), colliain 100,000 se//- slI#tlillillg plal/ets. 15 space iournal �Our galaxy has an age of aboul " billion years. \Vi(h one SU I>c rnova explosion e"cry 400 years, about 10 million supern ovaI.' must have exploded (luring our gabxy's life span. Eve ry second o ne of (hem may havc hee n one component of a twin star, giving risc to a c irculllstell:ar gllS and dust doml, and subscquemly to a family of planets. E\'en if it may be tOO oplimislic to assume Ihal each of the resulting 5 million planetary syStemS COlllains at leasl one planet wilh condilions favorable fo r Ihe developmem of life, it is cen ainly not un realist ic to expect that onc planetary fumily out of 50 includes a mcmber o n whic h condi tions similar to those on our c,tnh prevailed at o ne time o r anOther. Tbis lIIeUIlS (bllt we sbollid eX/Jeff tbal Ii/' ill Jome form may bal'e det ·eloped. dllrillg tbe laJt 4 billiD" )earS, f)l1 ubolll 100,000 ,IiUert'''' pial/tis wilbitt Ollr gala:.:y. O ur own !;lllalCy show the structure of a spi ral nebula. Its size and shape resembles "ery closely one of its neMeSt neighbors in spnce. the benutiful spirn l ne b ula in Andronu.xI(1 ( Fig. 5). w h ich is "only" 1,500.000 light rears away. The diameter of our own galaxy is about 60,000 light years. It conmins belween 10 and 100 billion Slars. Comp;oring (his treme ndous number of stars within our galaxy with Ihe 100,000 planets which may possibly bear life, we must conclude that lifc is, on a n absolute scale, a fre<.luCIlI e"ent within Ihe galaxy. Re\;olively speaking. however. it is elC(reme- I'ig ure 7. A rllISler 0/ galaxies ill tbe CorOIl(l 110realh. A lllbtl il/distillct b/otciJes ill Ibis (Ibotogr(lpb, uboll~ '0, are galaxies app rox;. 11/lIlel)' Ibe size of Ollr OW". 16 space journal Iy rare. Only one in about a million stars is privileged (0 send its warm ing sunshine out to a satellite o n which livi ng organisms dc,·elop. Our most powerful telescope o n Mount Palorll(lT IS able to discern ynlaxies as far out as one bill ion light reMS. \Vithin rhis obscT\'ation range there are about 100 million yalaxies ( Fig. 6 and 7). I:ach of them may (;ontain lOO,<XlO life-sustllining planets, lI·hirh leads /IS /0 a to/al 0/ tell thousalld billioll plallets, witbi" totllly'J obJfrr.·"ble mlil'erse, ubicb IIllly be il/b(lbited b)' liI·il/g beillgs. The toml n umber of stars in Ihis vo lume is te n billion billions. It is well to remember that this yiga ntic n umber is numerically eq ual to (he n umber of mo lecules within one cubic centimeter of air. H ow long will life continue to prosper on our earth? The heal bala nce of the eMlh depe nlls almost em ire!y on the su n. Solar heat is cons(;lntly produced by the fusion of hy{lrogen nuclei into helium nuclei. This hcat production will go o n with :I slowly increasing rate for :lbom 50 billion yea rs. \X' hile the hydrogen supply is g radu_ ally consumed, the sLln will slowly heat up and, at the sa.me time, swell to a diameter about as brge as the orbit of ,\I:lrs. From then on the S\lIl will stan to sh ri nk. II w ill not expl<xle like :I supergi:mt, but ,"cry gradually cool off. At the end, (he sun will be a black dwurf. Lnng before t h:lI, life on any of t he sobr " hltlelS will Im"e become impossible Ix.-causc of Ihe he:ll increase during the hydrogen-helium con\'ersion. BUI (here is a good chance that life w ill persiSI on eart h for se"eral billions of rears-as far liS t he sun is concerned. In (he neX I edil ion of SPACE J ournul wc w ill (liKUSS the "ar),;ng p hysica l conditions whic h arc found on a pla nc.! in (he coursc of its life cycle, and we will sec: in pllTt icular w helher the earth is prepa red to su pport life for some more billions of years. �SPACE PROJECTION ro ck, t mail to the moon What should the stamp cost, based on current propulsion technology? B y Dr . H . W . Rit chey lech~ic81 dirodor Ihio~o l chemic81 corpO'8 l ion red, lona divi.io" M OST AS P ECfS of space travel oave been covered extensively in a great volume of literature that has appeared on t ois subject over the laSt few years. The problems of propulsion and control have received a treme ndous amount of attention. Other problems relating to the survival of the h um an being in space and his psychological and physical reactions to wide variations in g ravitational fields have also received considerable attention. Perhaps t he one greatest problem now impeding progress is that of the subconscious inhibitions buried in toe minds of those technologists now «'pable of effecti ng space travel. This problem may be solved for future gencwtioos by the publicity now being released in the semi-tech nical publications and on television. The yo unger generation, now in the for mative swge, h'n'e seen animated cartoons and other demonsn;.tions of the feasibility of space travel to the extent that they now look upo n it as an accomplished fact. On the other hand, our present generation of scientists, even those who arc able to prove logically by eng inee ring calculations t hat space travel can be accomplished, have been so subjectively inhibited by their early condi t ion ing that most of t hem still regatd it as impossible in some segment of their mind bur ied deeply in subconscious. Only wi t hin the last few years has it been respectable in sciemific circles to discuss seriously the feasibi li ty of space trave l. The actual fact exists that we arc now capable of sending an objcct outside the influence of the e~rth's gravitational field and, therefore, with an adeq\l~te system of guidance could send this objcct almost anywhere in {he solar system. The design chMacteristics of a rocket system capable of propelling an object outside the earth's gravitational field are so weB understood that it is possible to make reasonably accurate calculations of (he cOSt of such a propulsion system. Such a propu lsion system could carry rocket-mail letters to the moon or to a planet, ~nd we are then able to estimate to a fair degree of accuracy the cost of a rocket·mai! stamp needed to send a rocket·m~il !eHef to ourer space. The problems inherent in the necessary prop ulsio n sySl'em have already been solved by progress in the field of so!id-propellant rocketry. In the so!id-p ropellant rocker engine, the propeJlant is properly mixed and " injected" into the combustion cham- 17 space iournal �bet at the manufacturing plant. II A com- posi te type of sol.id p ropellant can be processed a5 a slurry in the m an ufacturing p lant lI od OUI directly in to the pressu re veuel. A typical engine of this type is shown abo.·c. The charge burns o n all the exposed inside su rface of a speciaUy·s haped propel.l ant cavi ty. Since bu rning occurs from the inside outward, the flame docs not contact the walls of the pressure vessel until near the c nd of t he b urning period. If a proper fue l bind er is used. the charge can be bonded 10 the walls of th e p ressure vessel lind pc nnilics i n we ig ht (I re pa id for support of the propellant. Although the performance characteristics of present rockets cannOl be disclosed, calculati ons urili:dng obvious assum p tions concerning propellant de nsit ies and de nsities of the high-stren g th st rucmrol matcria ls can be used to show that it should be rc lat ivcly easy to make a SOlid-propellant rocket engine in wh ich 86"AI of the gross weight would be propel1:1111. Si ncc both this ratio and Ihe propellam sp<.'Cific impu lse are related 10 combust ion c hamber pressure, it is assumed that this ratio can be at tained wit h a propellam u hibiting a 5ea-Ie\'el impulse wit h an optimum nozzle of 195 Ib-s«/Ib. H such u rocket is designed 10 operate somew here ncar opti m um in the ,'cry low-pressure co ndilions e)Cisting at h igh ald tude, this speci fic im pu lse figure will r ise to a "alue of about 230. M:Hl y muJciswge. solid·propellan t rocket ve h icles IHlve been fired and the ca pabi lities of staging and of high.altitude ignition lw,'c already been dcmo nstrated in such missiles as t he Loc k heed X 17 ;Hld the multismge, solid-propellant test vehicles fired by NACA. For the purpose of estimating thc f1lke·off weight ill an "escape "elocily" missile, the stage load rotio of 1:4 has been assu med; in other words, each rocket cnginc weighs four times all the load that it carrics. ThC5e performance valucs and design criteri a arc thc n used in the following equation for rocket mo' tion; 18 space journal , v ~ V ~ I •• ~ • - W, - W, ~ I." x g x 2. 303 log W, W, velocity. ft/sec propella nt specific impulse, Ib-sec/ lb g ra"italio nal accelcration, 32.2 It /sec? initia l we ig ht of syste m fi na l wc ig ht of system Thc calculated velocity, unco rrccted for drag and gravitational efT~t, is shown in T ab lc L This ve locity is the n COrtt'Cted for drag :tod gravitati omll effect b y su bfracting an o\'cr:tll gross " loss" figurc, convcned 10 equi valenl vclocity loss. It has becn assumcd that eac h rocket stage is a fa ithful linear scalc rcp roduction, in w h ich case t he fo llowing sclle re lat ions hips obtain: Burning lime of Rockel B = scale facto r times burning lime of Rocket A T hr u~ t of Rockct B _ :scalc raClor 5quared timcs thrust of Rocket A Gross wcighl of Rocket B = scale factor cubed times g ross wc ight of Rocket A Using thc5e rclationsh ips it is easy to esti mate the time of burning and obtain a corrcction for the so-C'J.llcd "8" losses of ,·e lacity. This corrt'C ti on is also shown in T able T. II is morc difficult to arriyc al :to accu ratc corr~ti on for at mosp he r ic d rag, eSf>Cci:llly sint"C dcs ign of the specific aero· dynam ic con figu rat io n is beyond th c scope of this article. Based on c)Cpcricncc, how· e\'cr, it wou ld seem reasonnble and adc(l\I(\CC to incorporate a corrC(;tion of 2,000 it/s« as the loss to be incurred by atmospheric drag for the smaller, "h igh_g" rockct, and 1,400 ft/sec for fhe larger rackct. T hus, as Table I illustrates, it is possible 10 attaiD escape vclocities wilh a one-pound payload using a missilc hlt\'ing II lotal take-off weight of less than 3.200 pounds. It is also beyond the scof>c of this article to estimate thc productio n cosu of such a m issilc ; however, expericnce w it h relatively small numbers of rockets made in research- �I TA BLE I M A il ROC KET TO TH E MOO N - SPECIFICATI ONS "oG' ...... " ~ ., .. ,.. '''''"f .... "lA., ~" " "0 . H',.,'" .... H . .. ' , ,,'" ,.,g.",, ' , . ......, ' • '0 ' 1 f ( . RETRO ~ ... nO"'D < IT 0 Wl1HO UT ... "", '0'"'' II ... ~OC ( H W ,TH 5 5 , 0 .85 230 8dOO 1 ~8dOO I 2.0 , 25 20 0 .85 230 8400 8400 ,.< , 125 100 0.85 230 8400 8400 59 2 '" SOO 0 .85 230 6400 8400 10.0 1 3125 2500 0.8 6 no 7200 8400 17.1 AVDW 15, 625 12,500 0.86 7200 29.2 195 195 40 , 80 0 40,800 lOSS 1,400 2,000 D' AG 1055 2,000 1,400 37,400 37 ,4 00 lOlA' •.. "" , --~ without " ,e t, o -,ode'"' aml-Jc>'clopmCnt qu a nti ti es wou1d indicate th at 20 such syStemS could be :.ssembled ill a total cost not exceeding 5 10.00 per pollnd of missile weight, amou nting (0 $}2,000 1:>cr vehide. Cer tain olher problems wOllld natllnrl]y exist if such a project were to be attempted. r or e xample, there is hardly m:ed to se nd a roc ket-m a il letter (0 the moon unless someone were there to receive it. This problem is norrllally not related to the COSt of t he smmp. l(Od, therefore , the cost of placing a recipient in Ihe rig ht location has nOI been included. T here is also the problem of either hil ting the mrgc. object with i' free-flight ballistic missile or providing some type of wilh ",e lro -rocke t" ' termi nal guidance. Since the moon subtends a "isual angle of aooU! [0 mils, it shollid not be tOO difficult a task to la unch a rocket in the right dircction and with sufficient velocity to hit the moon on a frecflight ballistic trajectory, T he recipient POSt office on the moon, of course, IllUSt bear the COSf of fmding the rocket at thc impact poinl a nd recover· ing it. Here we get into a nebulous area where it might ver y well be argued th a t the COSt of finding and recove ring a rocket wou1d far exceed the COSt of the vehicle itself. [n fact, the expe nse of remi ng one of the cOIH"cmional l;wnching sites for [aunching the >-e hicle might very well (all LnlO the sa me category. l.et·s assume, howeve r, 19 space journal �tlmt it rc(!uircs inve~trllem of two man-da ys time li nd $2,000 in amortization of C<juipment in order to Iliunch the rocket_ So far as recovery is concerned at the other end of the !Inc, ir hardly seems reasonable to per_ mit the rockel to impm;:t on the moon's surface with the incre mental "elocity C<ju ivalem to free-fa ll in the moon's g ra,-i. rnrional field p!U$ what ,'e!odty is left at the "tu rn -over" ]loOi m , In other words, in order to pte,'ent th e rocket from being completely dcsltop:d o n impaCl, it would be neccssary to ,:a nee! out about 8,500 ft/see accu lll ulau.'(1 vClodty shortly before impact. Th is would be done by \.sing the last stage as a " Tetro-rock et" and by adding on a new firsl stage weighing fOUT times the 3.125 poullth appe:. ring in T able I. This adds a n addil iona l 12.500 pounds to our rake-off weighl a nd :.ddilio na l $1 25,000 to thc COSI. The pay!o:ld will be a one-pound object consisting of a steel shell, a properly constirutcd dre marker. li nd the mail will be micro-filmc<1 on 16n1l11 film. Eac h Hamp will allow the scnder twO pages of correspondence which would be tr:Ltlslllitled in the form of twO micro·fillll frames, Since vo lnt ility of the dye Illarkcr would be a matter of eXlreme importance. the dye marker will consist of carbon black and a small e"plosi,-e chnrge, the tom l of which we ighs four ounces and which will be at· rlmged to explode on impHct SO that the impact point will be mnr kc<l by the black powder, The steel shell comaining t his load will weigh two ounces. The burned-out ' retrorocket" itself will act as a buffer agai nst impact damage, and it is e"pec(ed that the steel shell conraining ten ounces of 16mm micro-fi lmed corresponde nce would $uT\' ive a n illlpact at sc,'era] hu ndred feet per second . The COSI of recove ry and delivery at the receiving end will , in accortl:tnce wit h U. S. Postal policy, be subsidi zed by the U. S. Governme nt , and, Iherefore, these COSts (lfe not includc<1. T he len ounces of micro·film w ill contai n 12,800 16mm frames, and will r('(luire 6,400 l>O$tage stHmps 10 send 6,400 leuers. A summary tabulation of the COSt of mail service is as fo llows: $125,000.00 Addcd Siag e 32,000.00 Other roc kels 2,000.00 Amort iza tion launchi ng e(lu ipment 250.00 Two mun-days (consult· am rate) 159,250.00 -:- 6,400 525.00 pe r stamp Di vidi ng by Ihe number o f letters th nt m ay be mlllsmiued, this leaves U$ a COSt of 25.00 for rockel-mail stamps to the moon. the 20 space journal mOOll. �L SP.t,Cf. FLIGHT remarkable x-craft By Fr e d e ri ck I. O rdway, III "'n.p. e •• dent 9 ue •• 1 •• Ironeulic. co.poretion T H E UN ITED STATES h as seen R uss ia slowly dose the wide ak- power gap that once se parate(1 the twO nat ions. Mil itary experts 1I0W agree that in many areas lhe Soviets arc <Iuantinlti\"e l)' ahead of us, and as far as quality goes they a rc catching up rap idl y. To offset any c hattenge to our ae ri al supremacy, the Un ited StalCS has embarked 011 an ambitious experimental research air· eraft program th:lt, it is hoped, witt insu re the mailllena ncc of leadership in superior q ua lity a irpla nes and missiles in the years to come. i\hny of th e exotic spaceships of th e scie nce-fiction world we re prefixed by th e letter X; tod ay many of the astO n ishing rese:lrch missiles and pl:lnes being developed by American tcchnology have the same in· trod uctory Iclter. The X-series is our pre"iew of tomorrow's aeria l wcaponr)'. The idea for seui ng up a researc h series of :Ii rcraft bcgan d uring the course of \': 'orld \\7 ar It , bu t work was no t t)Cgun seriullsly until the end of hostilities in 19'15 . T he Air Force, Navy, and National Ad visory Conuninee for Aerona utics Bell X-I Bell X-III (NACA ) coocei"ed of, aod ha"e conti n ued development o n, an ad " anced series of re· seMch vehietes. t)(:t:lils, from few to rather complete, arc available on more t han a do~en X -craft. \X' e fi nd that thcre arc three t)'pes of veh i· clcs that ha\'e been gi"en the X.designation: (I) manned rocket ai rpl anes, (2) manned turbojel airplanes, and (3) unmllnned missiles. Ra ther than tfy to look at them in n ume r iC'.!.1 order (X- I, X ·2, X·3, X·4, etc.) it should be more in teresti ng to th ink of them by caICgory. Since the most exci tin g frontie rs of flight 'Ire usu:tll y :tssocialcu wi th man :LS well as speed a nd altitude, leI us look at what has been (lone with our pilOted rocket airplanes. The l.icll X·I was the first a irplanc in the world (Q reach supersonic speeds in Ic,-ei fl ighl, crossing whut W:lS known as Ihe "sound barrier" in October of 19-1"7. T his WIIS an c "c nt of tremendous il1lpor. ra nee to the aero nautical sciences, :md was accomplished by designi ng and fl)' ing :l rocket.prOI)C!led ;,i rplane th a t was ~ Imost lilenl ll)' a m:lnn(.-d m issile. The pl:Lne was lJeff X-Ib /jell X·2 21 space journal �driven by a powerful Reaction Motors GOOQ·pound t hrust rocker e ngine operating on liquid oxygen a nd alcohol. It p rov ided milir;u·y a nd induslrial aeronau tical reo searche rs with invaluable data about t be t hen.virtual1y.unknown reg ions o f high. speed flight, a nd d ata derh'ed from rhe program were fed into late r combat air· p lane des ign. A modification o f the early model was the X·IA. five feet longer thall its prede. cessor. After thorough teHing in 1952 and 1953, this I:.rget plane amazed t he wo r ld by tt;lve!! ing ,I( 2V2 t imes the speed of sound, or 1,650 miles per hour, in Dc· cemlJcr of 1953. In another flight it reacht.'d :1 record altinuJe of 90,000 feet, whic h liter:,lIy brought ma n to the fron· tiers of sl).lce. \'I:' hile the X·I cou ld only sUSI:dn PQwered flight for 2V2 minutes, the X·tA could e n joy four minutes of full power since it ca rried considerab ly more fue l. An X·1 11 was bui lt and speciall y instru' mented for resc<Ltch on high speed frictio n he:lling. As the myMeries of the sound harrier were dispelled, thosc of the " thermal barrier" wNe explored. All of thesc X·I ai rp lanes were nornlally air·l,. unched from specially adapted bomber.t)·pc four.engine airpln nes. Th is ('nil bled the X.plant'li to util i:,.e their precio us fuel on ly for the re· scarch purposes (or which they were de· signl.'d. without wa~ting ill. )' for take·off and cli mb to Hlti t ude. The planes can and Imve. howc,'er, wkcn off from the g round under Iheir own powcr. It is imercsting to know that the X·IA :md D plu nes weigh about 16,000 pounds and arc crammed with 1,000 pounds of in. strulllentation to record the variety of tests that the pian(.'s \U1dergo at the outer reaches of the tLlmosphere and at extreme ,·elocities. NOt al[ ai rplanes of the X·I series were successful. X·I Numbe r 3 was destroyed during a fuel opcralion, a modified X·IA exploded in 1955, and a model D of the series also WaJ destroyed. It is "'1.'11 know n that air in motion possesses kinetic energy. Now if we de· 22 space iournal cide to b ri ng to a halt rapidly.movi ng air, the e ne rgy contained in it 1I1L1St be con· ye rted soUlehow, a nd we find that we end up with heat and pressure energy. A simple equation tel ls aeronautical.design engineers and ilerodynamidsts what the tCIllpt:'taturc rise will bc of :m object encountering a rllpidly.mov ing air Slfealll. As ai rplanes and missiles roar t hrough the utmosphcre at e\·er.;nc re:,sing speeds mo re and mo re ,"elocity energy is convc rted in to hcat. \'\Ihlle some o f this heat is cond ucted through wh:1! is called t he boundary layer and w h ile, especially at extreme altitude, some is radiated out the air frame , much has to be absorbed . Specially prepared timniu m, stainless steels. ilnd ceramics are used to prOlOCt the aircraft from th is heut. Moreover, each craf! hilS a cerrain heat capaCit )'; bur " ircraft designers kn ew that sooner o r lau~ r re· frigeration syStems would ha,·c to be in. corporated if man anJ materiHls were to sut\·i,·e the "thermal barrier." It is ohvio us th:1! the denscr the atmos. phere the more acme the heat p roblem beCOUles. To study the thermal phenomenon propedy, greal speeds a nd high.altitude mpability arc necessary. If we were to fly tOO low a t tOO high a velocit)" we would burn up like a meteor. Man ht.s found trmt if he w,mts to go substantiall y funer than he d oes today he mUSt gCt be)'ond the thick anllos pheric blnnket ilnd into the rnrefled upper le,·cls. Till.' X·2, :mOfher Hell- Air PorceNAC.t\ rocket rescMc h nirplane, w:.~ spe· c ifica ll y designed to explore this thermal barrier. In J ul), of lasl yea r il had reached a top speed of thrcc limes the speed of sound or ahout 2,200 miles pcr hour. To get th is eX1C1I periormllilce a Curliss-\\ltight liquid.propellilnl rock"t engine. de"eloping 15,000 pounds of thrust, w .•s u!ICd. Perhaps e,"e n more astounding than the 5p'-'Cd produced was the record altitude flight of 126,000 fCCt , o r nearl)' 21 miles straight up. The powerful rocket engine a llowed d am 10 be gained of airplane l)('rformance at hig h angles of :Llmck. When spee<ls �I of .Mach 2 to 3 are reached, the temperature of the skin may r ise from 250 0 P to 650 ' F at high alt itudes. Designers have therefore fitted the X-2 with t'emperature· resistant glass and a heat-insubted cabin to provide protection for the pilot. Furthermore, special alto),s were used in critical parts of the plane. In else of airpbme malfunction, the elbin could be ejected and parachute· lowered to an ah itude where the pilot could separate and complete the (lcscent with his own parach \lte. One of the X -2's exploded a nd was intcmionall), jettisoned fro m its mothe r launching aircraft in May 1953. The last X -2 crashed because of stability prohlems, killing the pilot, Capt. M. Apt. So the X·2 progr;lm is officiall)' over. T o carr)' on the work st:Lrted b)' the X- I and X-2 ;lirplanes (as well :.s the rocketpowl.'red Nav)' D-5S8-2. not a part of the X.program), one o th er manned rocke t craft is being developed, dle X·lS. The Bel! X _I E witt be used for .Mach 2 research until these new pl;lnes are ready. Its (ust flight occurred in June of this )'ear. Details are shaping up about the North American X-IS , which is sponsored by the Air Force, N avy and NACA. it will in\·estigate the unknow n velocity regions at five, six, or more times the velocity of sound, and il" will p robe 100 miles above the su r f;,ce of our planet. IFe ellll almost COI/.shier the X-15 as II IIMlmed stUlcesbi/J, alUl it will t1rob"bly be Ibis progressioll Olltwards illl)eiocit}, Iwd "di:Jt"'lce Irolll tbe eartb" that will bring /IS to lull·fledged IIUII/lled spflCe fligbt . \'(Ie S'IW that the old X-I planes produced 6,000 pou nds of thrust, white the X-2 built up 2 V2 times that; as much power as put Out by a typical Navy cruiser. T he X-IS's rocket engine, to be built by Reaction Motors of New Jersey, will release 60,000 pounds of thrust, :lnd will fire from 1 to 3 minutes. Despite this enormous amount of power, despite the fact that the a irplane is designed to explore areas where no man has yet been, and despite the fact that frictio n heat generated may rise 10 ISOO Df to 2500° F, the plane is considered quite safe. Depe ndi ng on the c ircumsta nces, the p ilot, in case of a mishap, will have a 90 to 100 per cent survival chanl·e. The airph10e has been carefu!!y designed from th e human enginee r ing poi nt of vicw, with :,erome<!ical scientists of the Air Force ;1Od Navy cooperating closely w ith the manufacturer. It will be heavil)' inst r umented to record conditions of ree n try from sp.Ke into (he earth's aUllos, p here, heating, st;lbility ,It high speeds and a1cimJes, and comro!' The X_IS wi!! be the first, {fUe hypersonic boosted glider. The initial flight test is expected in 1958. Although less spectacular, high I)' import'lm work is bei ng, ;'nd has been , accomplished by rurboiet-powered research a irc raft such as the X-3, x·4, X-S, X-l3, X-1 4 and X-lS. A!! manned , these planes have probed a v<Lriety of aero nautical unknowns, :md results are rapidly :lnd effi· ciently being "ploughed back" into industry. DOllglas X-J �The X-3 h as often b<.-en referred to as the " Flying Pencil" ix'Causc of its long (nearly 67 feet), thin shape. Powered by tWO ' Xlestinghousc jets. it produces 14,000 pounds of th r ust and land s at a brisk 215 miles per hour. The wing loading (a term dcnoti ng thc gross we ight of the airpla ne divided by thc a rea prcsented by its wings) is somc 200 pounds for cach square foot, a "ery unusua l figure. This m i(l·w ing airplane carries 1,200 pounds of research instru mcntation a nd a rcf r igen ltion system for cool ing the cockpit and instrumen ts. An imcresting fact is th:or it uses somc of its fuel to circulate in the nose arca fo r cooling. The a irpla ne was desi gned to tCSt out slIStll;lIed, \'ery high speed flight. and was a joint A ir Force, N:lvy and NACA projecl. Much of the craft was madc of lilanilllll. Meanwhile, the X- 5 is :! plane featuring a var iable sweep wing; that is, t he backward 51(.nl of the w ings can be :tdjustcd durillg flight . W h ilc landing and taki ng· off the sweep is about 20 degrl'e5, and in fli g ht it can be positioned b:lck to ~ degrees. The w ing·sctting mechanism is coupled 10 an a pparatus th aI immediately compensates for the shift in the center of g ravity of the IO,OOO-I'ouod ai rpl ane as the wi ngs arc changed. T he usc of sweptback wings bOlh delays and red uces transonic elTects, but the exact degree of swccp is often a problem. AsSO(:;ated widl 5W(,'CP, howe"er, is a number of <Iiffie"!ti,, such as t he thickening of Ihe so·callcd hound:lry In)'c r ncar the tips. flow \'clocitics along t he wing, necessity of large anglcs of aWlCk at high lift. and d ynamic stabi lit y. Thc X·5 was designed to im·cstigare the aerod)·namic cfTecu of swccpback and change of sweepback . Two airplanes ha"e crashed in thc leu program. 'Xle now turn ((I anot hc r type of turbojetpowered research airpl:.ne known :IS the V'\'OL {meaning Verlica l T (l kc'off (' n<l Landing ) , represented by the X·I3, X .1 4, and X·lS. All t hree planes ha"e come into Norlbrop X-4 T he Northrop X -4 :H1J Bell X-5 rep resent a d ilTe re nt sort of airp lanc in that they arc not prim:! rily designed for speed and altitudc testing. Thc x -4 is charactcrized by a tailless configuration wilh swept wings, being pattcrned after thc well-known "fly_ ing wing" design. Ele\'ons on the Iraili ng edge of the wing act us uilerons and ele,'ators. It is u SllIa ll plane, weighing only 7,000 pounds (11\d measuri ng less th:1II 27 fccI long. Much valuable in formation has been gained on sUl b il ity ,md {light charucteristics from th is a irplane in rhe subsonic speed region. Bell X-5 24 space jou rnal , ; �the news vcry recently, and all three ofTer different approaches 10 the same end. The X- 13 is pop u lar ly knowo as the Verl i jcf, and its a pproach 10 vertica l takeoff is very d i rcc~: SCI the plane in a l u il- downward, nose-upward positio n, a nd lake otT. It is launched from a trailer bed which is hydraulically r:l ised infO the ven iCli position . • The plane hangs from a hook on a stretched albIc, and when ready 10 fly build s up power from its Ro lls.Royce A von e ngine ulltil thc thr ust (,,,",eros Ihe weight of t hc :lirplanc. In Apr il the first " mulSit ion" flight was made when t he plane ,·cTli(.-ally look nIT, "conve n ed" 10 the horizontal position. flew at a rcspccra bl)' high speed, agai n con vened and nmd c a ve rt ical la n<l ing. A jet reactio n CIl,l[Tot system is A SUI'(,rson ic VTOL lighter has reporl(,'(!' Iy been des igncd based on the X · 13 which, it is claimed, could climb to 15,000 ft'Ct d ur o ing the ti me II cOIH'cmional fighter is be· coming airborn e. Th is and o ther VTO l.s w ill probably re\'0Iutioni7.c the concept of aerial warfare in tha t no ebborate (a nd vu lnerable) land ing fields and carriers will be necessary. Gi.·e the VTOI. a littlc sp;\ce in the b;\ck )';\rd lind thllt is all it :lsks. The sh rouds of mili!;,ry sccreg' have o nly been lifted from the Uell X·14 which might be call(,'([ a hori 7.0ntal VT OL. lis two Armstrong·Siddeley ASV. S Vipcr jet engines produce hot disch:lrge gases wh ich are di.·erred downward du r ing take-off 10 p ush the a irpiline upw:trds. The total JUSt e mployed during periods of rising, lower. ing o r JUSt ho."ering; the pi lot del1ectS the jet exhaust by thrOllle control. Onl y 24 fect long. the plane has Jirecti onall)·-controlled bleed jets on the wingrips, and exceltern performance character istics (good climb. m"neu\'Cr"bility, etc.). The Air I;o r«:, Na\·y. and N ACA have "II su p ported th e program at one stage or anmher, al· though Ihe Ai r Force supports the as such. x·n IJell X·14 thruSI is 3.500 pou nds. As the plane rises, the exhauu gases arc di rected by special vanes more and more rearward and hor i· zonml fl ig ht can commence. Three com· p ressed ai r jets arc used to comrol a!litude when the plane hovers. The pl:'ne has a lready completed preliminary f1 ig hl lests both co n\'emionall y and unde r VTO I. con· ditions. RY"'I Verlijet X·13 T he fina l X·VTO t plane lIbout wh ich we know sollll'lh ing i5 H iller Helicopters' lilt· wing X . IS, which feature s four turboprop engines, with twO COunter-rotating propel. lers. This approach [0 Ihe VTO t a.rt relies o n tilti ng Ihe w ings fro m the hori· zo nlal 10 t he vert ica.l posi tio n and allow ing 25 space journal �the ClIrboprops to literally screw the plane up into (he air. Small turbojets in {he tail provide comrol dur ing hovering operatio ns. This p lane will pro b;tbly be used to nans- I. port troopS anJ supplies to and from arcas through thc atmosphere into sp:lce (a pproximately 200 miles) then tilt and , with m otors still fi r ing, emcr the earth's atmosphere at fiftccn times the spccJ of sou nd. All this is done to test re ·entT), proble m s where no airfields arc av:,iJablc. J{ eportS arc tim! it (:UIl rno \'c along rather rapidly. H iller X-J8 Wre now come TO the third a nd hml\ category in our su r vey of the X-sedcs, Uflm a nn('d missiles, the X-7, X - tO "oJ X-17. Lock/)«etl X-7 [Oleh is powered by " different type of engine; each has ils own specific rC5Cilfc h purpose. Lockheed has twO, the X-7 al1<1 X·17, and North Arncriclo one, the X -IO. A 11 :ITe c"lled {cst veh ides. The X-7 is powe red by two ramjet cogines, being what is called a (CSt bed for the type of powe r pl;ont that propels the Boman: intercepter missile. The missile has heen under development a nd test fOT approximatel y ten ),ears and will continue at leaS[ one more. It is usu:lll)' air-launched and boosted by :l rocket e ngine to accelerate the missile to the point where (he ramjets, whic h need ra m :lir 10 sustain their opemlion, C:ln take over. Unlike most missiles, X·7 is not expendable, and Gm be parachute. recovered for continued use and evaluation. It ohen lands nose fu st on a nose spike. Dat;L arc tra nsmitted to the surfacc by a radio telcmc u y system. The X-17 is a more a m bitious rocket, being a three-st"ge affair, 40 feet long. Normally, the roc ket will take off and fly 26 space iOlKnal and the vit;d nose-cone aspect of the forthcoming intercontinental ilnd intermediaterange b .. llistic missi les. On one flight, whcn the tilt ing mechanism did not function, the missile flcw to an altitude of more t han 600 miles a nd a r,mge of more than 700 m iles. During flights in April and July speeds of 9,000 miles per hour were reported and later confirmed. .i\fore than 20 of thc G·wn . solid.propelled rockets havc been fired from the Air Force M issile Test Center, most with good results. \Vhi le the findings TO d ate have bccn i,pplieJ by thc Air Forl'e to its Atlas, T itan and Thor b"I!istic missile projects, the Navy may coorinue to fly the X - 17 as a test vchicle for its submari ne-based Polaris l R.BM . \Vhere"s the X·7 and X-17 use ramjc[s and rockets resp<.-ct i\'ely, the X·lO is provided with twO wrbojet engines. It is a test vehicle fo r the rt.-cent!y-cancelled Navaho XS M-64A imercontine ntal-range cruise �l..ockheed X·1 7 Nortb AlIIericlIIl Nambo X-IO \ m issile, nnd it is e mployed 10 check out nerodynnmic problems, electronic co mpo nents, :md gu idance features. Flight testing of the X·tO has been successfully CO Ill pleted according 10 the A ir !'orce. It has a lnnding gear nnd ca n be reco vered after fli ght fo r re-use, offering a great savin g in money. Na"aho, the end product, was to ha\'c bee n I>owc roo b)' Tam jets and boostoo by three 120.000'pound li(IU id rockeu. ila"ing brieR)' lookoo at t hese spectllcular X-crnh , we mn)' ask : "" 'l?hat next? 'Vhat w ill happe n 10 to 15 yea rs hence?" Th e Air Force has IIlreally predicted lIIt1l11lt!d rocket tI;rcrlljt flJillg tit um times t he speeli oj SQI/lld u'i/hill tI~is lime perimi. If the X ·15 re~c hcs 100 milcs, a laler X·plane, which may then be calletl a spaceship, may re:tc h 500 m iles, 1.000 miles, or more. T he I>op u iur dist inc t ion bctwo:."en airplanes and missiles 1Il1ly fude as the y blend imo tomor· row' s space "chides. !I1ilitary pial/lien lire alread), Ihillkiug oj Ih e possibility 01 II'ars jOl/ghl ill the s/,(f(e slI rro mulilig tbe e"rlb 11111/ ils Jlilllospberic bl'lIIkel. ,\ t th e $,'I me t ime our cruis<', interceptor, :lIld ball isti c mi ssi le prog r~ ms w il! become highly sophisticated. 'Ind again, if peace conti nues, techniques c\'oh'oo could lead to rockct nnd ramjet·propelled commercial air liners ('d rr)' ing passengers at thou s.'I nds of miles per hou r at the Olller fr inges of the uimosphe re fi nd, of course, spaceships. Tbere seems lillie doubt Ibtlt b~llisli~ mis· siles <llId rOcitel ~irpllllles u ·HI be lII~ted IlIIII del'eloped ;1110 lIIalllled r ebides IbaJ will 0118 lilly re'lch t be 1110011. 27 space journal �SPACE P RE V I E W " mar s and beyond " N DECEMBER 4th of last year, view· ers of ABC·T V's " Disneyland" hour watched the third of \\1all Disney's T omor. row/and space ser ies unfold, MarI and Be)mJd, in the 48'millllte documentary "so:;:iencc·factual" fo rmal, sur passes its tWO O excellent predecessors, ,\ 11111 ill Space and Ala" (lOul tbe M oo'i. Now being re leased in T cchnicolor for IhClllrical dist r ibu ti on, Ma rJ a"d Beyond rcprescnu the culmi natio n of IWO rears' research, w riting and artistic en<lcavor br D r. ErllSI StuhlillKer, a /ea(ling scielltist ill t be rocket IIlId !SliMed lIIissile fieM (/e fl ,) ami D r. "" ember /10 11 /Jral/II, rQcket ellgillee r (right), cOllfer Q II a sCIl/e mode/ of Ih e IIt omic· electric splice sbi/! Ihal wOII/(1 make 1,01$ib/e Ib e I OllK trip 10 MarI ill tbis scelle frolll IVlIlJ D ist/ey's j\I / IRS IIml BEYO N D. 28 space journal ----------------------------------------~i �I a dO;j;cn Disne y specialists, under the n'r· s:u ile direction of W ard K imb.111. The film aS$Li15 the enormous subject of life o n other worlds, firST by a ca n oo n sequence tr.lcing ma n's cosmic specu lalio lls througho ut his· lory, then by a sober ,·iew of comcmporary scientific hypothesis and conjcnutc. E"olution of the solar system and life, the conditions of m an a nd hi s environment, and t he condi ti ons he may expect on other ,,1:1110::1$ IIfC conside rations wh ich form the I11I1;n th read leadin g us to the rC(1 planet liS the only other habitable sphere with in Ollr solar f:ullily. After a dramat ic pc r usal of (aCI5 lind spccu i:ltiol1 on Mats a nd its m ys· ecries, co nducted by towcll Obscrval'O ry 's Dr. Earl C. Sliphcr, II Its {/escelll slowed by a (Irag rhllte, a Martiml Imutillg rmlt Ilears tbe m r/l1ce of Mtlrs, method of space !light new 10 t he gcneral public is p re. sc n{c<I: the io n propubion system devised b)' Or. Er nS( S t u hling~r . In a simulated trip to the fo urth planet. the atomic-e lcctric spaceshi p and irs orbit are broug ht om in a nimated ill ustra tion which captu rcs the imagination. The ac· curate presenrution. carcfu l allcm ion to de· rail, and concise narratio n cstablish Dr. Stuhli nge r's ha rd ware as a revolutionary but .sound means of ext raterrest ri,,1 navigation. In tclcscoping the }'ear·and ·a·half "oyagc into :1 few minutcs on the screen, lll ar$ alld lJe)oml achic ,'cs th e dream li ke re:llity of a Chcslcy Bo nc5tcl1 pa iming brought to lifc. Crew members 0/ a M art;a" ship obsert'e a lefet'hiOIl srree'l the progress 0/ Ihe lille 0/ the other ships hi tbe fir$l exped;. tio" 10 the plauel ,\Iurs, 0/1 Thc olllswnding virtue of this motion picw re is pe rh aps its success in prese ming a difficu lt s\,bjccl to $0 w ide an audience. "I";me, in a rev iew of u n usual praise. points oul , "The)' d id not confuse thc popu lar wit h Ihe vu lgar, avoided th e error of talk · ing down to t he viewer." SPACE J ou rn al recommends ,ll4rs alld He)o/Ill to all aStrona\us who want to in· troduce th eir ne ighbou to the age of space. I;or those who saw it on television, you will be surprised ar the added dimension afford ed by a l:lege scree n and the superb colo r for which it was designed. Crew memhers ;11 bottle suits mOI'e Ihe rorkel fa"di"K rrafl aU'a), from Ibe Martiall ship a"d il/lo positiol/ prior 10 attemptillg Ihe hazardous 600 mile drop 10 the M artiall SIIr/aCtl. 29 space journal �SPACE CARTOON S out-our space "Good heaIJem, tlfe Ibe 1110011.''' }'Qtl CQillC to build it to "Uh_ob •••" J.I-l£ ~Dv£nTU1~:£\ 30 space iournal �RIE O\ CTlOI VO X pDpuli (EDITOR'S NOTS: The ~m edition of SPACE Jnurnal broughc che following reactions from r..,.ders. ) "" , , , You may not remember . hi5 little SlOry. Professor Obcr.h, because it is so typical of you that it might ha\'e happened many times, hut it is as fresh in my memory as if it had occurred yesterday, It was early in 19·'13 at PeenemeunJe, the Ge rman rocket developme nt center on the banks of the Baltic Sea. \'(Ie test·f.red one of the first V2 rockets, and bec'.IIlSC the art of rocketry wns still in its infancy in those J t,ys. there was no "pad safety" to hold us hack from the launch ing site, When a missi le was fired, we stood under some pine trees not more than 300 feet away from ,he firing plalio r m. and we were happy to feel the dust and ,s,"l nd. and e\'en the fringe of • the hot biaSI, right in Oll r faces. T he V2 missile wen! off fine dun Jay, anJ our eyes followed it until it had d isappeared in the deep· b lue Baltic sky. When I turne(1 my eyes earthward agai n, saw your filce close 10 me. I h:.J never seen you before, but immediately recognized you from pholOgraphs. YOII gazed at a disrnnt point somewhere in the sky, but not at all in t he direct ion in whic h the hig rockel had jusl disappeared, I felt very happ y to stand so close to such an extraordi. nary man and perhaps 10 listen 10 what he miglll say, n ut you did not care to ta lk. After a long silence, I finally said, " It must I .--.-,.~=---=­ .. _-_.------._--.- - . --- 31 space journal �certai nl y be a most gratifying experience for you, Professor Oberth, to see how beautifull y you r ea rly dreams and concepts of large rockets hll,"e now come to life." But }'ou ne ither answered nor changed your ex pression. I was convinced tbat I had said so me thing "ery stupid, if not offensive. Afte r a long ti me, you slowly turned you r head , and you ke pt turning unt il you looked fa r ouc in the opposite dircction . After anothe r long pause, you talked, selecti ng rour words as carefully :Lnd slowly as only a dee p .probing thinker does: " 1 have the greatest ad miration fo r the engineers und Il'chnicians who buil t this rocket. But be· yond th at, it does nm lILean IILILch. \'\Ie havc known before that a rocket w ill work within and beyo nd che atmosphere. This rocket is only the first litt le step toward a much grea ter project: the exploration of ou ter space. Out th ere, there arc still so lIl uny thi ngs whic h we do not know and which a re perhaps far beyond our im"ginat ion . The re exploration is w hat really counts. \'{Ie must not fo rget this goal in the en th usiasm cha t a mere technical success may g ive U5." After th is. you contin ued to look sile ndy into the depth of space which was far away from your eres but so ve ry close to you r heart. H urll$vi lle, Al a. Ernst Stuhl inger Dear Editor, Vol. I, N o .1 , was handed to me fo r comment. . . . . I have just fi nisll(xl read ing it from co,'cr to cove r, somet hing I very rarely fllld time to do with any journ a l. P lease enter my su bscription, effective with the fir S! issue if possi ble. I fear you have (!Stab· lished slU;: h a hi g h level o f :lChievemcnr with t his first issue tha t yo u will not be ab le to sustai n ie, but the I>cst of I,,(:k 10 ),OLL in t his ende:l,·o r. In(:id ent aUy, regarding Dr. von Braun's contribution ( React ion, p. 39) in which he all r ib\L te5 rhe " Becau$C it is t here" remar k to Sir Edmund H illary; I ha,"e not checked any refe rences on t his but wasn't th is rc- 32 space iournal mark actually mad e by eiche r Ma llory or In·inc quite a few yea rs befo rc !-lillary's t imc? Yours sincere ly. Capt. Edwi n R . Arc hi b."lld USAF Holloma n AF8, N ew Mexico Dear Edito r, I hne JUSt read )'ou r magalci ne SPACE Journ al, and I like it very muc h. Howe,'c r , I wish to !,oint OUi an error in the React io n Depa rtment. In his first paragraph, Dr. VOIl 8raun refers 10 th e answe r " l3ecLuse it is there" to the questi on o f wh y anyone shou ld want 10 climb Mt. Eve rest. I-Iowe"er, this a nswer was not give n by Sir Edm und l'l illar)', but by George leigh-Mallory, who dis."lppeared on Mr. E"erest in 1924. On this, his third attempt 10 co nquer Mt. J~ ,"eres[, he and h is companion, Andrew Irvine, were hLst see n by N . E. Odell, hig h up the mountain. I'm sure that Sir Edm und was moti. vated by the d r ive to which Dr. vo n I3ra un refe rs, but hc d id not make the remark :lllrib uted 10 him. Yours truly. Euge ne Edelstein New York, N . Y. R ~gd~rI A rfbibnld ami f!.d~ls/~ill <Ire correel ill snj'itlg Ib,,1 Ibe sl<lletllellt I/'ns firs l lII<1de by George Leigh-Alallar,. Dr. 11011 Brallli is <llso corren ;1/ <lUribll/;llg tbe reo 1II<1t1t to Sir Edmlmd. Itl tb t! fi/111 fiocllllle"t· ;lIg tb e eXf!Cllit;o" , Sir EdllI/lml /lJed tbe pbrnse, g;Ii;lIg Le;gb-Mallory crefiil, alld said tbat be /lias 1IIolil'''/{u/ b)' tbe sallie reaso ll. Elli/or. Dear Edi tor, I w ant a one·year su bscription to SPACE Jo urna l. Start me wit h the winter issue .. Eadl iss ue of SPA CE J our nal COSIS SO cents :LIld it is published quarte rl y. \Xlhy docs it COSt $2. 2S for a one-yea r su bscri ptio n ? \Xl hy the ext ra 25 cents? Yo urs trlLl y. Leo Bigos III Ibe rllSb /0 gel Ihe first issue 0111, a good mall)' 1!J;'lgs bettll/lt! eOllfusednmOllg tbem tbt! priet! on tbe fO~'t!r of tbe �I scrolld prillll"g oJ the first ediliOIl. 'rhe (OrTecl price per co/') is 50 cellI!; )early Jlfbscriptioll prire;s 2.00. GrQwj,lg paillJ of " Jledglillg publirlllioll were also tbe callst! 0/ tbis de/a)e,1 steo"d cJilioll. The ubeJule ;s /l OIlJ Slabiliud. &iitor. Dcar I:ditor, I :un enrolled in a Icacher training pro· '. • gram at the local un;.crs ity and study ing the dcvc lopnU'nI of a ~Lm UlI;t now in the upper clemen wr y leve l. W'ilh the cmpl13sis placed on man and science in the world IOday, we ha,·c choSl' n the Study 01 Ainu as the theme of our initial unit dcvcJo p' mCIH; its relation to his en vironment; its effects [II difTerem altitud es ;",<1 depths; and the co m pcnsnlio ns Ihal a rc n«C55:.r)' to enable him 10 :';0 beyond the stratosphere (:111<1 into space. if (:n:r). Do you hl"'C any pamphlets or in form:uion tlml we could have in relation to our IOpic? A bibliography and a lin of sources of inform:uion would also help grcatly. Ewa, Oahu. l!:awaii i\laSo"lko K iyabu A Iisl is 0'1 Ibe ",ay. &iilor. Dcar Editor, You·,·(' starled a publ ication which is mosl welcome. an([ J ca n'l co ncei"e of " beller group 10 hand le it. The SPACE Jou r. nal ce nainl y n~doo 10 coulHcract some of Ihe poo rl y wcineo "space a rticles" now appea ring in al m OSI e"ery newspaper and m ag:11,ine o n Ihe newssta nds. BUI my first reaction, when [ saw your firSI issue al Ihe local m agazine shop, was disgust. II's nOt bad enough that we're behind the Russiuns on Ihis thing. I thought - now here's another sensa tio n-ha ppy p ub. lisher It yillg to ma ke a fasl buck on it. .. , So I bo t hered to pick up your fust issue ami g lance down the list of contributo rs on Ihe co,'er. \V'ell, il looked rat her good -50 then. finally. I searchoo ins ide for the small print telling who did publish this magazine. /\nd I bought it. Consequently, my first suggestion would be thai )'ou incorporate 50me of that small print somewhe re on Ihe front co\'er, giving due cred it 10 the Rocket Cit y Astronomical Association of H untsv ille. Alabama, Secondly, I wou ld suggest thnt you ski p Ihe pocU)' . • • . But th e mOSt serious re'1ueSt I ha,'c 10 m ake is th at ),ou omit any science fiction. at least until the magazine reaches a sufficient size to spare a few pages on a sho rt slOry, InStead. I would much rather ha\'~ some good biographical studies of such men as Newton. Copernicus, and I:ermi, as well as GOOd:lrd and lowell---Qr eyen H. G, \'(' e lls or Daedalus, . , . Chic:'so, ll1 inois Joe Gibson Tballks for tbe ideas, Joe. A"d (IS a slart. ree tbe currem issl/e for a., <I,lide 011 Prof. Go(l(ltml. Editor, OeM Ed ilor, I htuc read 5C\'cral arlicles in you r first issue of SPACE Jou rn:ll, aod find myself particularly intrigued widl D r, Yon Braun's "Where Arc We Going?" nnd Mr. W hi p_ p l ~'s " \'(/ hy Conquer Space." I find that the inspiration expressed by these could use some backing in S P ACE Journal in OIher forms than Icehoi",11 articles. . . . . I call 10 mind particularly Ihe appeal 10 youth, And I can So"ly from my own ex. perience that m)' present interest in astron_ omy has its founda tion s not o nl y in the popular books 50 readily a\'a ilable on thc subject , but 11 150 in li n aCli\'c participation in some astro nomical experiment, I am sure Ihat lmd I nOI observed an eclipse of the moon in 19.f3 o r 1944, or lookl..x) at the sky w ilh bi nocu lars lind 1:lIcr II telescope (ho m em:,deJ. I would not have show n much ell1husiasm fo r Ihe HatS, For m~ny peo p le Ihe reading of books a nd art icles is ad· c(pHl!e. bllt I fecI Ihol expericnci ng t he fecI of looking through a Iclescope on a cold night o r developing t he f,cst negrll i\'e of an attempted moo n pholOgmph odds an essentia l ingredient 10 th e flourishi ng of an interest, Somehow. I fee l t hat suc h an ingredient should be pllt into SPACE Journal. As an eX:lfllple YOll migl\l sup pl y information on the frl..'quencies and noture o f the signals 10 be used by the \,:l riO U5 satellites' lransmitters 50 Ih:1I amaleurs with Iimiled equipmelll can cnjo), so me of this "acti ve p."lrtic ipation," That the R ussian Sputni k had o ne signa l 50 com'enientl)' 10000led in the 33 space journal �spectrum as to be available to inexpensive short w,lve receivers was well suited {O this. The satellite (.·ould be easily heard and, for example, its pulse rate established (counti ng pulses) and its signal strength could be graphed. And thnugh no useful d ata may be recorded in sllch a fashion, what is there lost, if this helps boost someone's interest in the conquest of space? I do not particu larly have in mind that another Moonwatch be established. J USt something that can put the amateu r in direct connlct w ith the activities, nOt through reading alone, but by "accive partic ipation .. · ' ,>,hat would be lost? Ikrkeley, Calif. ',>,ill iam E. K unkel Absolutely 'lotbing would be (mt, alld it is O/le of tbc aims of tbe SPACE jOf/rnal to stimulatc ;11$1 S/lcb illtercst amollg <I//latcurs. Ir1e pla'i to do i/lSt that ill fortbcomitlg isSllCI. Editor. Dear Editor, It is with considera b le enthusiasm that I discovcr<.>d )'our journal, not in the sedate and musty atmosphere of the public Jibr:try of Los Angeles, but deep in the skidrow section of Main Street. There in a bookstall famous for its girl)' magazines, foreign car publications, art smdies, and pin-ups, my ere fe11 on your exciting effort to interpret SP,KC [(....·hnology for the world. Particul"rl), of interest arc the philosophical remarks or intellectual justification for your acrivity. This I believe is importa n t for Americ;l11s, as we do not often u ndersmnd anything w h kh is devoid of economic motive. Thus far there has been no mcntion of oil wells, uranium deposits, or d iamond mines on Mars.. Just the pure possibility of discovery. I approve of this. The technical side of th is is of i[]{erest to me as I h,l\'c a sm;111 part in the technics of space travel: 1 work for a company Ih,1.[ manufaClllres vihrorrons, the vibral"ing wire type of tra nsducer wh ich me:tsures pressures with t;reat ,1(CUr;lCy ... t et me compliment yOllr staff on its rarc huma n appro;,ch to one of the greatest teChnological efforts of all time. Dr. von 34 space journal Braun, for a European, has considerable insight into the th inkint; of Texas. Ev ident_ ly they, roo, have been co ndiIione<l by "space" limitations, Y ours sincerely, V. E. Jenkins Tusti n, Calif. Los Allge/es, it appears, possesJeI OIIC of tbc more (/iscrimifltllillg skidrows ill 'he Call/Itry. SPACE 10m·//al, it also "PPCIITI, elljoj's evel1 a widcr audie/lcc tball we bad at first supposcd. Il7bilc tbc fint issllc contained 110 "mel/tiOll of oil wells, "'·allium tICIJ05il$, or ditmlO"d mines on ,\I"rs," succeedi"g issues will illclude <lrticles 011 all pbases of tbe 1I1IlII)' facel$ of sl,ace e.v/JloratiOIl. . illellitl· ing thc col/Jmerci,,1 possibilities of estabJisbiug illtlllstr)' 011 Mars, if such be feasible. SPACE 10url/al is collcef/zed with alll'rob_ lems alit! I,o ssibilities illvoll'cd ill space travel, alltl i" tbe futurc it willlJrillt (1Tlieles accordillgly. Editor. TH E ROC K ET CIT Y AS· TRONOi\I ICA L ASSOCIATION re-elected four officers and three board mcmbers to their posts for 1958. Re·elected were: Dr. ' ,>,eruher von Braun, who on January 29 received the Space Flight Plaque of the American As tronomica l Society, presiden t ; Mr. Conrad Swanson, vice president; Mr. Geort;c Farrell, secretary; all<I M r. Quincy Love, treas· u rer. Also re-elected as board membe rs of the association were Mr. ',>,ilhelm Angele, M r. B. Spencer Isbell, and i\l r. Gerhard H eller. Assoc iate board members elected wete i\I iss Susanne H iltc n and " I f. H artmut Schillint; to fill the positions vacaled by M.r. Gerd Schilling and M.r, Gerald SwanSOil. �I SP ACE FIC T IO H beyond th is star B y James l . Daniels, J r. B RAO PIU;SSED T HE BurrON be- side the buoyant cushion on whic h he lay. The seamless fabric CO"cr ing slid down from h is body and J isappcan.'<1 into t he footboa r<1. He stretched to loosen h is dormam muscles. So rhis was t he laska of the attempt. I..aska, day; he was eyen \Ising their wonls now. So flu, !iO far-from th:ll blue-green Earth wi th ils you ng gree n hills and azure sky. wilh irs sun_warm days and rhi nestone ni ghts. More than six months now, earth time, he had been here 0 11 this dead moon so far from Earth. Now, if the csc-.. pe ancmpt worked, he must go back with the disappointing an· s .....ers-the few that he had. The only reward for the whole long· heralded expedition was the p roof of (he Animate P rogression theory the Palomar Group had championed so long. The regimcntation, the 5lagn:1n1 Sffile of humanitr herc, the whole cr:unpot.-d and smffy, tomb-like existence of a dead·soule<1 pcople in these Domes on Ihis :jirless ic), world-C"en with its ever· lasting nuwmation , it was nil so dead, like these undecorated metal walls around him. • Bnld rolle<! up w sit on the side of the bed. T hc warnlth of h is feet wuehing the cool floor ~ICltlarl.."{1 the silent weathertron somewhcre in the cemer of the building. Th!! elose air sti rr!!d and freshened in th e room. Across the narrow room the blank door in the wall b)' the View-scree n broke silen tl r open. The liquid blonde girl who entered came toward hi m, smiling-flowed as if wil hout feet under her g listening Jegelinging skin. K ay-ba r! She alone could make him think of the folly of the a llempt. H e held out his (lrms for her. She g lided into them. "You sleep so long, was warm (l Ito. Ill)' One." Her voice "Am I suc h (I fool to go?" Urad held her out from h im. I ler face s,'"ldde ned. " Is the lime so soon, Urad?" T he answe r hurt within h im. " I suppose knew th:1I you would know, Ka y.bar, b ut couldn't (ell yo,,:' 1·le stood lip, Sl id ing her hnnds from his nrms, and turned away. The skylight had folded back, nnd the perpetual sodiulll light caSt pale re llow on the "~dlls of the room. Up beyo nd the mile-high cry stal dome the awful sputtering g iant, J upiter. W(lS almost direnl)' over· head. " 1 gue5S no 10"er in rour cons of history, 1I0r in the shorr t ime of man on earth, e ,'er faced a part ing an)' differently. How does a m:1II tell his woma n, ' I am going- amI wi t hout )'ou.' l:wfI when he is going to leln'c her. not jllSt hundreds of mi les or thollsu nds, bm millions, behi nd him." " I, like your I::. rth·poe u ' love rs, would sa)', 'T ake me with )'ou.''' She touched his should.:;r gent ly, Her breath was warm ugl. inst his back. I-Ie clasped the 11(lIIds she folded around h is waist. "But I will not so (lsk. I know thllt YOLl ha\'e ro, da rling; that it is not for you r p«Jplc or m ine; not for rour world or millc, bUI e"e n for all our kind, that you go. Goodbye, Brad, and may you Ih'e 10 see your green hills of Earth agai n." Urad's brCflth ached in his throat as she sli PIl,ed away and Out of the room. 35 space journal �" \'(filh how sleps w<.' lea\'<.' the dream couch, w which I wandered afur," I-Ie finished the line wilh his words, fo r truly his cOIning h:I<J been afar. lm'efrom own from A long dme afterward. in the San i-closet, with the cleansing son ic W:I\"<.'$ dngling his skin like a neC(lie shower, he closed his eyes to dream of Earth. He had been tingling with neeJI('s of excitement when he had first climbed [hosc long Slone stairs up to the oak.panel door of the Observatory. I I was t('n r('ars lal('r before he was ready. bcforc [h('y e,"en loid him that hc would be one of the three Ollt of Ihe thirty in the organization. the P:.tomar Group, who would take that long jump beyond (he pale bl ue Earth into dark space-to find those ancient answers. Since the mid-century war the basic ques· lion had been simple: "Can man endure in the face of contimlL'<I fratricide, with weapons in hand tnat can oblileratc life?" 36 space journal , Hut the sim plicity of the question had be· lied the complexity of the answer. Neilher Science nor Philosophy had been able to begin to answer. The ]>ondering of the q \lcsdo n had been bel:ned , pessimistic, and negative. In desperalion. Drs. Wherry, Carl, and others of Ihe first Palomar Group in the sixties had IllrnC(1 (0 the discarded theory of Animate Progression. which was simply Ihat solar syStem life had begun in eo ns past on the outermost planet when proper condi ti ons had e"olved; then as that planet wilh ils own cooling. the diminishing he:1I of the sun, and its own outward drihing from the sun, had lost its atmosphere a nd d ied, the life of the plnnet had moved on. or hud been mo\',,'!! by unknown coslllic forces, to the next planet nearer the Sun. The process had repeated irself u ntil our own Earrh had e\'olved life a nd l)Op ulated itself. Most scienti fic and research groups, infl ue nced by such limited theorics as \Xlildl's atmospheric cornposirion theor)"which would preclude ex istence of earth· �, lorm life on the other planers-had dis· claimed the An imate t heory and scoffed at the Pa lomar Group. But the grou p con· ti nued it.s astronom iC'll 1 resea rch. \'Vh ile the wodd sciences de\'oted research toward greater weapo ns and man rushed madly toward annihilation, the Pa lomar G roup de\'oted itself to t he Animate P rogression research, turning its spectroscopic swdles 10 each pi:lnet in rurn, constructing a n ac· curate sp:lce AIi:lS, and preparing men for space travel. Confident t hat t he guided missile and man ned rocke t programs wou ld inevitably overcomc ti,e tec hnological harriers to space trave l, the G rou p directed research tow;lnl sclecling the beSt possibility among the solar system planets lo r surv iving life. They reasoned that if [he Animate theory were correct t here would be a strong possibility that life had surv ived o n at least one of the o lder 1,IaneIS in the progression, and if such life had survived then the inhabitants by "irtue of the very cons of thei r existence shou ld be far wiser than earth's man. T he proper presentation of the question of man'S surviva l wou ld be to such "O ld Ones," if the)' uistcd. " b nned satell ites in the late sixties had helped (0 make possible t.he technological b reakthrough. The Moon Obsen'awry had been completed in 1971 and the Palomar Group, now redllime.:1 by science and the governmen t, 1110v&l. in the re in ri me for unobscured observations of Mars during its dose llpproach in August of Ihat year. Mtlrs prove<1 to be a ruSty d ri e.:l.up p lanet, but, d uring the nex t yetlr, electro·spectroscopic studies, without 1:1lrth's vapor Hnes to inter· ferc, revealed tim! Ve n u~ aClUally did have WlHcr vapo r in ils atmosphere. f urthermore. tI,a! atmosp he re wns actually evolving into a com l)Osit ion thar would support li fe for ms such as found on Eurth. Heartened by their Jisco\'eries, t he Grou p searched w ith re· newed lcal for some sign of sur vivi ng life on the outer planets. h was only w hen they began t.he ir study of the satellites that a real posSibility was fo\,nJ, Europa, the thi rd moon o f J upiter. Only sligh tly sma llc r than and tw ice as far from its parent as I:arth's 1I100n, it fasci. nuted t hc Group because o f its h ig h re fl ec· ti"if)', so high that fro m t he Moo n itS albedo pro"ed to be twe n ty times that of Earth. There SCi!med no way to explain it other than t har ir muS! be due to something a rt ificial. A nd art ifice in the Un;"crse could only mcan life. No t long aftt( the cad)' chemical space (Irives had taken man fO t he I\100n, Dr. Reinhold, wo rking with Neulfon ics Elec· tric, hnd dC\'cloped his G·Null Converter. R einhold had simply coupled Stuhlinger's Ion drivc experime n ts w it h the f orce·field Trtlnsmiue r developed in 1970 by H och· berger at M .1.T. and had comc up with a device for tra nsmitting a positive force ficld to a p rescribed area ahead of t he shi p and simultaneousl), pola ri zing t he entire sh ip to negnti\,e. It wou ld sim pl)' draw the shi p forward b)' lIU(nction, with its speed regulated by the strengt h of the field. By reversing the direction of the field from front to rea r and adjusting the strength, thc ship could be eased downward against a gra\,ir.n ional pull nt a controlled speed, thus simplifying landings on an)' planetary body. The legendary Paragraviry Device was a fact. • • • • i-iencc, the destination was determ ined, the course c harred, :md a feasib le sh ip un· de r construction when Brad Hudson. Myron Drake nnd Sieve Arnhearst were Sl'lecte<1 fO form t he crew of the SfA RI'fRE. T he Sf / JRPIRI? had bunched from t he moon in the spring of n inety. three. Fo r the ent ire nine months there had no r been a single major malfunction-just the vast da rkness and the mo notonous h"m of the G·Null Converter in the compart· ment next to h is bun k. At times it had not been easy to hold back the shrill \'o ice in· side t hat kept trying to sh riek out agai nst the h um and the weightlessness that "'en t he mag net ic sole5 had not been sufficiem to overcomc. The), st iU left o ne wi th the feel ing o f hanging from the ceiliDg by the shoes. Another n inety hours would bri llg tbe sh ip in to the J up iter gravitational field. 37 sp.!lce journal �38 space journal ------------------------~ �T hen wou ld come (he real test of Reinhold's Com "cncr. If it could build up sufficien t braki ng power 10 ho ld aga inst t he J upi te r fie ld, at least un ti l they cou ld get into a n orbit arou nd t he tin y Europa! Re inhold had been confidcm , but th en he was the (:lI her o f the thi ng and was (J ot the o ne hav ing 10 leu i l . Brad was som ewhat 11 (>prehensh -e. H is r ig id stomach m uscles assu red h im of t hllt. • • • Forwa rd, in the bu lbous nose of the ship, t he shore squa t A m hearst am id dial s and panels h unched suddenl y forward w ith his eyes g lued to t he ele<:troocope, sca n n ing the now baskct ball·s iwd J upiter and the rapid e ll ip ti c swing o f Euro pa aro und it. " Beue r gC I up here, you t WO," A m hcarst's hoa rse "oice b las ted sudden ly loud over t he he lmet inte rco m . Brad Soar u p as the lank y D rake brushed paS! h im with his robot-like wadd le_ Afte r twO yea rs of (raining and ni ne months out, Dra ke st ill had n't lea rned to coordi nate h i5 moveme ntS wi th t he alternate left- right, on-off, automatic switc h ing of the magnetic soles for walking. Brad followed the long man 10 the from. Beyond the forward port, J upitcr was ballooning at a terr ific rate. " \Vhat ?" Drake's calm rationa li ty came t hrough, C"en in his voice. The cool· headed bean pole had been the smbilizing factor th roughout the long ,·oyage. Amhearst, in :lnswer , mot ioned IOward the forwa rd port. " Europ:I'S Ihe lillie mile 10 t he right now. Y Oll {;:Ln see it with t he naked eye."' And Ihere it was, a tiny brighl light, sliding across Ihe red Aurry of J upiter'S south tropi. cal disturbance. "Now l:heck the electro· scope!" Am hea rSI slid b.1Ck from the face picce. Urad p ressed his own helmet to the scope. T he enla rged scope image broug ht the little moon a Ihousand ti mes closer. It was ice wh ite wit h crystal-like specks dotting the face of it. "T here's lifc--or was!" Brad forced himself to re lax against his childis h desire to jump up and down. H e enriched his oxygen supply and breathed deliberately slow and long. \Vithin ten hours Ihe crystal spotS had resoh'ed in to dea r dome like Stnl{;t uces on the ice,co" ered moon, spaced geometrically m'c r t he su r face. T h us, the high albedo was accounted for. In a nother live hours city· likc arrays o f Structu res could be seen in each of t he g ian t Domes. Dur ing h is third ten· hou r w atch since t hc ol»cr vatio ns had begu n Brad could make o ut cylind r ical a nd hemis pherical bu ild ings, g lint ing b r igh tl y me ta l.lic in t he art ificial ye llow glow inside the Domes. By now Ihe appre hoosion had again rep laced the exci teme nr: W ou ld the li fe th at had crea ted th is hu man· like arc hi tecture still exist inside t hose bu bbles t hat had no do ub t enab led t he m to survive afte r the death of their wo rl d? T he apprehension doub led into cold sweat when Brad called th e ot hers to statio ns for the fie ld reversa l. 110r now wou ld be the teSt- hu rtl ing in. wa rd toward J upi te r Ilt one hu ndred thous... nd m iles pe r hou r. Dmke and Amhearst sl rappcJ in and checked. Brad glanced o,'er the panels and d ials. "Nowl" he 5o.. id. He locked the la nding Con tro l in lO the orbit of Europa. H e sucked in his breath and he ld it, Aashed the red panel ale rt, and {;ut t he Con,'ener to Zero. He pressed the Field Re,'ersa l leve r to Automatic. The Field· D ial needle snllppt.oJ across the face of the dial and locked on Re\·crsc. Now, wou ld it hold? Brad breathed again. lea ned back and adjusted his body straps. The slow ing bodylUgging tlcceler~lI ion began. Fi ve hours of this and t he n lan<ling. Quite suddenly Ihe b lackness came, and he knew no more. \Vhen Ihe inwa rd Aow of returni ng con · sciousness ehbed, Urad was aware of an ac hi ng while lig h t. It S<.-etned 10 ha ve no sou rce. H e was not on the ship! H e mUSt have rni.scalcll l ~lIed the decell'ra t io n rate. So the AulQmat i{; had landed them. He lay on a dllis of some k ind in the center of a rather bare and cold hemisp heriC-oil roo m. On one side of the room were te n whitecloaked figures scared behind a panel of desks. After a momenl Brad reali~ed that he was the object of their attention. He bl inke.:l again, (o r the len were idemicalstmiglu coal·black ha ir, pale skinned and heavy browed. As Urad studied the cold 39 sp ace journal �impassive faces, the one in the cemer spoke. "You, Space Comer, are in the presence of Primesters. I am Ko-Pa ll, the J udge Superior of th is world. \Xfe b(we ascertained that you are the Prime One of the comers." If/bill of tbe olber$.' Urad cou ld not spea k. " To know you nnd your race we have kept )'OU unconscious as we found you, for ou r psyc ho.physio exam inations. Now, we must exam ine )'ou in a conscious state. You w ill tOuch t he protr usion unde r rour right hand, please." T he b:ISS ,·oice /l owed Out with a hrp nolic resonance. The ma n's f(lce rem;, ined expressionless, but there was a sinister hardness a round the da rk glinting eres. Brnd fingered the knob under his palnl and pressed. T he dais resolved itself imo a n eas)' cha ir shape, leaving him in a comfortable up right position. So smooth was the tr1H1sfoTm;,tion tha t Drad's reltex tensing had not time to brace his bod)' agai nst it. Now the tenseness weLU au I . The r;Ul{ness in his head !Old him that his hod{s relaxed condition was Slill part of the elTC(:t of whatever narcoleptic inducing agent they had used on hint. " YOII have of course hccn thoroughly exam ine<1 by our l'srcllO- Physiological 1X."Ople and aLIT Dio·7...QO logiC;11 staffs while you were narcothi7.ed. as h""e the o t hers of your people." D rake. AIII!ullr$t_ tl·bere are the) ? Urad stra ined to speak. " In a moment," Ko-Pall s.1id, "YOII w ill be able 10 speak. As for your friends, if that is rou r concern , they life safe. They, tOO, ;. re being studied. \X' e will not harm )'ou. I aSSure )'OU tha t Ollr interest is pu re ly scientific and ratio nal. Idlc curiosity has no place in our world. You w ill, of cour§('. obscn'e that we corwer§(' in rour langwlge. This we know will not surprise )'01L. as rOil people had on your "chide p r imit i"e electron ic tnLnslators ' ;,"d deciphering devices; hence, rOLL Me ;Iware of the sim pl!! process of defining and reproducing ;1 language. You k now t hat the neX t ste p is a de"ice for imposing the mechanics On the brain of Ihe lea rne r. All extension of m ncmonics docs il." Of course, Urad t hought. So /I'e Bartb· 40 space journal 1/1611 hll!!e gOlle $0 far with 16(bnology tbat we f orgot Ibe simple lillIe hUlllal1 elemBllls. -rbirty dll)'s bath September-. " If you arc wondering about the Prime· SIers you see here, we arc thc go,·e rn mc tH. The Primesters' specia l illlerest in ),011 is political not clinical or scientific. Our Science a nd T ech·Councils have th ose areas. Our exam ination need not be feared . Now, you arc advanced as a life form , otherwise you would 110( !la,'C ,'cntured through space. You are ad"anced as a race, otherwise you could not. Natu rally we must dete r mine whether you ;rre a t hreat to OlLr world. Our Tech-Councils, tlfter their eXIlIlIi· nation of you r ship and other equ ipment, hn"e all assured us that you can be such a threat. Now, we must ;Iscermi n your politi . cal intentions and I:>otemiai for we know that it is pol itical and commercial Ilmbition, not scientific potent ial, that initiates cooAict." Ko· Pall clasped whi te bony hands before him on rhe black metallic desk top . "W'e ;Ire. of course, a m a~cd that your life form, e"en though more primiti,'e in its e.-olu· tio nary nate, is similar to ours, fo r our reSClrrch has prove n com patibilit y of man y ;md radically different life for ms wi th the uni"c rse. \'(Ie ha"e dc term in('d that you arc of Planet Th r~ of Our Solar S)'Sfem?" The cold man paused as if wa iting for an answer. Brad's '"oice (:ame now, but hoarsely. "Yes. we are from I~arth." " \Xle had detected life there but thoug h t it more primiti"e." Ko· Pa ll's face d ispla)'c<1 some slight signs of inte rest now. "\Vhy did you come here?" Brad's '·oice came easier. He explained the Animate theory. the question of man's sor"i"lll. a nd the nal\1r111 curiosity of 1:lL rthlings. \Vhen he had fioishe<l, the Primeste r Council filed solemnly out, like a panel of robed English judges. The)' let him slc.:.-el' e ight hours in a cubicle off the central room-then back for quenion5. Question eight, sleep eightmethodically (he)" continu(.-d fhe e:o;aOl ina· lion. co"ering cver)' face l of ea rl h life. Sociel), and gm'ern ment, they prolx.-d unt il �(here was nothing in his mi nd in those areas t hey d id nor know. The food COli · «'n mues Ihcy b rought him w(' rc tasteless. He grew weary. Ko- Pall grew morc persistent, a] mOS I sadistic, un til th e cold ha n] face and mClhods fused inw a brinle si n ister • personal ity. And B rad knew fhe man was d:l!Igc rous. He beaullc so cTuc ll y h uman -the racket boss, the d ict'dlor. In his nea r ly n umbed 5 1111(', Brad s:nv the possibility of answer to Eanhrn an's dilemma fade and die in Ihc face of this self·centered man. So here, nfle r cons of ('xistcnc(', was man. Surviv ing, yes, bUI s[;l1 thc sa me selfis h, powe rmad Cf(~alurc that was dlc younger 1::lrth kind. T hen, abruptly, Ihe cxamin:uions ceased w illi Ko- Pall's p ronOllnce mc n l tha t t he Ear t hmen were teu l), a ducal to Europa. B rad k new that here would be Ko-Pall's • , stepping stone fa mo re powe r, the eli m ioa· t ion of the t hreat. T hey had sem him to ~ hl-bar the n" I u- bnr the D ireclOr of Bio-Sciem:es for Euro pa. It "':1$ to this w i;,;ened little /11:10 with cri nkl)' cornered eyes and gemle mouth, :ond 10 his daughte r Kay.ba r, thnt Brad owed h is survival these six mon ths since the Primester's inquisitio n. Ko- Pa ll had conceded 10 Mu·b:lrs· demand and hud grallted a six· mont h observat ion pe r iod. Under this guise " III-bar had taken 13md into his own apartment. There. w it h Kay_ bar's <ln ily com pany, Brad hild learned the comforts of this hermetic world- t he sonic shower, where now he su)()(1 tingling; the d cct ronic app lian ccs wit h no wires; th e tcle" ision and tclepat hic SClnners. projccIOrs. il!ld monitors, c,'en to control sleep and rest: the diseaselcss cities; the illg:!e nnd plnn k ton food production ; Ihe ar ti ficinl su n light and I>ower harnessed to Jupite r's ceaseless hyd roge n eruptive acti"ity, tha i was thc great n ed Spot. And with Ka)'- ba r he leMnc<;! the 10"e he had nO! had time fo r in his I;art h ),ears of ime nse st udy and mlin· illg. \X' ith M u·b.1r Brad lea rn ed t he ho rrorsregimentation a nd hollow commu nal liv. ing, controlled genes thul rep rOl.h,,:ed euc h human type necdc<;! for specifIC blots in t he economy, w h ich expluined the similarity of the P r irneSlers. He learned of t he incessan t nnd aocient m ig rnt ion of the race. He leurned how ,\Iu-bar, in revolt against the order. had ahe red the state prescri bed genetic st r uct ure for h is own da ughter Ml that she Imd been born a throwb:lck, an individulil . unordered, unpatterned, q uile h uma n-nnd \'err fe male. Now in his da rk cubicle shower, Bead tried \0 bring it ;'uo focu$--the cold "i ndic· th'e Ko- Pall, the rfll iona l but dy ing world, his ow n lo nely years of fierce objectivity, his own self·sufficient Earthkind. Eres closed, he leaned aga inst the close meta ll ic shower w ;.]1. [r)·iog to reclaim Mlrtle di rt>ction from (he swirling weariness, w hile the whole unive rse coalesced, and all the outward flow o f sense And life from t he center o f h is being re"e rscd a nd w horled inward to compress within dIe boundar ies of consciousness. And he was awa re of the buf_ fe li ng flow-Ihe baffl ing reco il And wi ldly r ichocheting out flowing force of self. For ooe bright 1110melll, poised on the p recipice of "ast incomprehensible k nowing, he knew the basic fl nw of the man :lII il11al: that ration al ou t.flow ing. t hat cente ring ;n self of all that is k nowledge, a ll t hat is bei ng in time and space, all that is li fe-the misconception rhat humanity is in itself comp lete, the cen ter of the cosmos, und that mn ll is in cont rol. T hen in a moment it was gone and Br:ld was there again in t he sho wer, JUSt a setlred lillie man in an a lien land five hund red millio n miles from ho rne. -To btl cOlltbllled ill thtl 1It1.\·t isslltl of SI'ACIJ }(JllmalIT IS OF GR EAT IMPOR_ TA NCE that rhe gene ral public be give n an o pportunity to ex· periellcc--conseiousIy und illle]· ligeflll)"-the efforts and resu its of scientific resea rch. It is not sufficient t il tH each result be rake n "p, elaborated, and applied br a few specialists in t he field . Rest r ict ing the body of k nowl· edge to a small g roup deadens the ph ilosophical spi rit of a 1)(.'0pIc alld lead s to spiri t ual povert)'. - AJ be rt Einstein. 41 space journal �F[Co Win d M, ,,,o,y Co",p~I., _ on old .,h •• 1I0"'[I<>liollol .y.I .... op.'· 01. wilh Doppl... No miuile syttemt can be illustrated because of Ihe level of classificalion. fiCo is doing extensive work in ABMA's Redstone and Jupi· ler programt, in Iho Navy', Torlar and Terrier programs, and in other projects. 42 space journal FICo Vi '''''~nd • • Computillg Tim.r - <onl.ol. up 10 RYe .... iol <0 ....0. •'",,,lton...,,.ly. Highly 'O .. pod. ±S' ....",o.y. 6" long _ 2" d io ... FIC.. Mogn.ti< Vo ri .. ,lon C.. mpu'" - p,.et"d...... IOf ...,n"ol ' i on in ...... lIo'<igaIiOt'!. fiCo ASN·6 P.... nt ~o .itloll Com_ p~ t . . Sr.t .... - [ndl ... t ...... nd 'On· '.01 a re .hown. d '0"'" Ii., f lC .. Te. t s.t _ fa. night ,h,ck a ,,, of lIavigaiionol .y.,.... S.II· <ontain.d and po,'abl • . FICo hh ..".1 T."'p . .... u•• [nd iu,_ t ... _ .ang. 200' C 10 lOOO' C wilh fiCo Anolog·to·Dlgl, .. 1 Conyo,te. _ for oi.bo... ... dng .y.t... I.. , h .. l'Fi< <..nhol. �I Ford Instrument provides the systems • Navigational Systems and Compulers Exhaust Temperature Indicators Cru ise Controls Sensing Systems fo r Traffic Control • Guidance Systems Drone Controls MinHe Launching ond Control Compulers Computing Timers for Aerial Phologrophy Computer and Control Components Plouin9 Equipme nt FORD INSTRUMENT CO. DIVISION OF SPERRY RAND CORPORATION 31·'0 Thomson Av enue, Long It la nd Cily 1, New York Beverly Hills, Colif. Daylon, Ohio f., i"'-,mat'" ... fI C. ', aero one! .Issile " ",,,5 I11III (ClpClbililies, write to fiCo', AIRBORNf EQUIPMENT DEPARTMENT. 43 space iournal �44 space journal �I snow nor or gloom of night • , "We ;.... now capable o( • .,ndmg" an object ouuide the "arlh'. gnvltational held. Such a propulaion .yatem could carry rook'" rn"'II"lIero loth" moon, and we nre able t o cUunal" 'he COlt of a ro ck~ 1 m"il ltamp needed . The probluTIS i nh~r"nl in the oyl t ern have a.l ready been lolved by progre •• in .olid propellan t rocketry." 0,. . H. W. Ritchey Projecu .ueh ", "Rocku Mad to the Moon" m .. y be nec,,"ury looner , han we think. S1<,illed, te~h ­ nlcal1y t ... IMd ,nd.v.du",h are needed byThiokollO "nabl .. '"ell t,,\u,e projecU . Adda .. "''1U1rie'' \0: DIVI!oIO .... . HUNTSVi llE. ALAtAM" : : = • 45 space journal �guidi ng ha nd f or tomo rrow's power Skilled hands coupled with keen minds made tOOay's rocket powcrplants a reality. Minds that formulate new theories in powcrplant design ... and hands that prove these theories by careful experiment, tcst and application. Guided by such hands and minds, RMI has led the way fo r over fi fteen years - designing and producing record-break ing powcrplants for such supersonic vehicles as the X-lA , Skyrocket and the Viking missile. Today and in the future, RMI engineers and scientists will continue to blaze the trail toward advanced propulsion systems for" manned and guided flight. Engineers, Scientists-Perhaps yo u, too, can work wilh America'sft,sr rocket family. You'll find the problems challenging, the rewards great. P r og r es s D . NVILL _. 40 space iournal i �PUR1F1ER CHAMseR WHERE RELIABILITY SPELLS SUCCESS • . • • • Custom designed, precision built. Robbins Aviation products have been instrumental in the successful attempts of man to penetrate outer space. Progressive research and development in our laboratories will help to assure the success of future space exploration efforts, .. MANUAL • LEAKPROOF .. EASILY SERVICED • 1 • AUTOMATIC '* FOR DETAI LED INFORMATION WRITE CUSTOMIZED DEHYDRATION SYSTEMS " Wh r i~ Ih~,~ Mt'n I;m~ ~""",:" 10 do ;/ righl Iml ol"''''r_ lim~ ~"(),,gh to do ,', Ol'U.'H DO IT l iGHT THE fiRST 'I"'~! USE lOllll<l5 VALYUI 17]5 W. FL O RENCE AV E. l OS ANGEL ES 4 7, CA LIF. 47 space journal �IS YOUR FUTURE SECURE? Be sure you get your future copies of SPACE Journal by subscribing today one year only $2. DETACH HERE ANO MAIL SPACE Journal P. 0. Box 94 Nashville. Tennessee Name _________________________________ Address ________________________________ Occupation ____________-----;_______________ 48 space iournal �, On the lefl. aoon'. i~ the huS" cylinder of sirtl a nd aluminum ~no..-n U Rt:DSToSt: (built by Chry~tcr Corporation) the larg<'81 balli.,ic ",i•• ile in full indll~trial produc. tion. I'crftx: led ill Illl all.iltlpo rlnll ' projec t at I I 1Inl~\'ilk, Ala!>ltrna, by th e Army, Red,lOne i~ more Ih~n Il ...·CII(IOn. It ,3 a mile"IOne of irnmru:;e proporuolU. On the right-and goin!; inlO 11'OO:]IIcl;on unde r anI'''' Arl11 y ~onlraC I "jIlt Chry~lcr Corpora lion - is Jt'Pl'TE R - the first off· Kpring of R{'II,lone. DODGE a n inlcrmooiale ra"g<'l mi~ile clIpable of tranoling 1.'ioOO mil.:-•. \\ illlOut Red< lol)l', Ju pi ter would uever have come jll \O heing with the 1l!lonishing '''I,;<li'y tha i hn markco:i iu STO",t h from e~ perinM'nla l iM.. 10 produc_ tion ~talll~. Milly of t he f'rinciplc! u!<!(] in J upiICr- Vf()pllt~ion. suida uc<: alld oou· Irol, mcasuring &ys t em~ ani l fligh t con trob THE FORUI'ARD LOOK PLYMOUTH It ·~ - hale be e n pro l<e d in &ucce n fu l li ed-tone firino~< Ch rysler Corporalion i5 proud of il8 role in helpi"~ to create two ~ neTlition~ or Iluided n\l S!i lc~< Along wilh the men who have made the Arm y Hllllisti c Mi,.ile A,,'ellcy the mo.t succe5I!ful rn i~iJe head· quarters in Arneri~, we are no,,· continu_ ing Ihi5 prOorarn of progreu . This, /00, is CHRYSLER CORPORATION DE SOTO • CHRYSLER IMPERIAL �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol 1, no.2, Spring 1958. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rocket City Astronomical Association Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Still Image Text Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacejournal_1958_spring Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Life on other planets Rocketry Cold War Goddard, Robert Hutchings, 1882-1945 Propulsion systems Space flight Space race--United States--History--20th century Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/61/spc_hinr_001_060a.pdf 402ddd125572cc78daee34acd8bed5bc PDF Text Text �' o,d In ~ tn.m ."t Co. ," ", in •• , ,·hc,;l_ Hir,""aring g) ro (.)r nng"lar drif1 On equ;.torial test stand. T",t can .hQ,," up drift rate~ as Iowa. on" rC'Qliuiou in 40 year •. Test) !i~e thi, .. helped Army put "Explorer" into orbit Some 01 Ford Ins trument's current or recent programs include : oystcms •.. A••h lon •• ~d J~pi' •• Mlso,le laYnchi~8 .~d conl"'1 o,de. compule •• Nev, •• Uon.1 .~d mission co~"ol In . t1lall~>da"". incl~d'nl Analoe: .~d d'I".1 compu'e, oy"eml fu .. nl .•• mln, .~d oth •• wOft>e.d cO~I'ol equipment PI"tti"1 equipment Nucl. . , .y.,.m•• nd control. A special guidance system for the Jupiter C. de' eloped b) lhe Arm)" lJalltstic ~lIss;le Agency. \Ioas used 10 launch the first U. S. artificial satellite inlO spa,,~. Many componeills of this S) , tern "ere provided by Ford Instrument Co.. prime contractor for bolh the ··standard·· U. S. Arnl) Ikdstone and Jupiler guidance systems. The fabulously-etjuipped. fantast;call)-clean g)W lab (abol'e) is only a sma ll part of the adv;mced research lind dcvelopment {acilities a\·ailable al Ford Inslrumenl Co. They're us.cU to create ami produce the incredibly accurate control 5)Slems called for by modern tech. nology in bot h government and industry. And l ord Instrument·, large-scale precision manufae1uring facilities can turn evcn the most cri li cal 5JStcm requir('mcnl5 into "orting ··hardl'oarc·· o n a quantit)-production basis. Our Liaison Engineers arc at your )erviec to discuss "e your sys tem requirements. Gun'". conl...,l. 0."". conl,ol. FORD INSTRUMENT CO. DIVISION OF ,sPERRY RAND CORPORATION 31-10 Ttoom son Avenue, Long I S I"nd Clly I. New York fi. ld h i•• Of h e.. , B.v.'I~ H il l •• Ce lif., Ooyton. Oh io �JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO·SCIENCES CONTENTS Vol. I. No.3 Summer 1958 CO VE RS 10ARD Of CONSUUANf$ Df. W .,~hOf __ 'f "~~ FRONT : Layout and design by Ha rry Lange. Ske tch is Elplorer I (See page IS for story) BACK: Oil painting by H!lrry Lange was inspired by John Hulley's "The Purpose of Man In The Uni_ vene" {see page 3) 0 , ~ '~' f Sfok!I.<iOf ',of . H.,,,, ... Ob.,fh lDUOR_IN _C Hl lF , ~p .. c., IIb.11 EOI TORIIl M AN AG ING (DUOR 2 PROJECTING WITH SPACE JOURNAL Ja mel l. Da niels, Jr. ASSOC IAH ID IT OR ASSO CIAH I.W <h.11 ~ HITURES 3 THE PURPOSE OF MAN IN THE UNIVERSE John Hulley B LAUNCHING THE EXPLORER SATELLITES James L Stamy IS SPATIAL ORI ENTATION OF EXPLORER SATELLITES Dr. Charles Lundquist 21 LIFE ON O THER STARS-Part II Dr. Ernst Sluhlinger 31 THE ACID TEST Dr. Wernher von Bra un ~DIfOR ~h., .... J,. ASSIST ANT (DUOII ~AYOUT DIRlCTOR Ho,old E. ',k. AliT DIRECTOR Hon, H .· ~ GIIA~HICS ~ •• ~ OEPRRTMENTS L... ~. 37 SPACE BOOKS 43 OUT_OU R_S PACE 44 VOX POPULI DIRfCTOR 1<400". Jf. FI CTION SPRCE IUSINUS MANA GllI II lch.,d T. H •• ~, 47 CON '."UT OIIS f . H .. ,old Eo.o •. 0 01 " bo ' , .,. 1<40 11 , D•• IIb.ll. " I~ space review lipace C/lrtoonl Tuction BEYOND THI S STAR_Final Chapter James l. Daniels. Jr. L•• q •• ~o,o '-4 . '-4 0"0'. Vi' 9 1.,. ~ho, .... 1<4 0', J o•• Do • • W."o. T. 1<4 "'1 ' 0". "''1""' Hoch. SUIM ISSIO N 0' MAHII I A~ l ito ,. b", '"lo. of "'0,.,1.1 to ,h ', Jou, ••1 I, 01 .. . , . . . .Ic"",.; .,11" .. of !iOO ' 0 JfIDG .. o,d • S•• d III. 0,19' ... 1 0. " hit. bo.d p .... ,. I, ... ",;"... do.bl. ",.cod, pl •• 1",o .. ,bo ••. L.. , • • 1 ' ....1 • ""o·'.ch "'f910 "" oil .Ido ••• d ~ OI .11 111.,...110" " II ~ .h. 1..1. ,,,,,.Id b. , • 10 i.,h., .", '11 0'" I1., k. Th ••• d litl • • hG.ld b. on ,,, . " 0.'''' ;1'1. ... pic " " 01 Ih ••• '" ., u d • , h.,1 b loq,. "h ',ol .01• • ,. ,.q. I,.d 1o. " ublico lio •. Soc.,it, c l.. , •• <o fo, .11 "' 0. ..101 lUbfll l.. od I, Ih. ,.,,,o.,l bm,. 01 Ih. 0.' ''.'. PI .. ,. , •• d mo,.';.1 10 H ... CE Jou ,.ol , 0. '"". 12. H •• II.ill •• Alol>o.", •. All ", ol.d. 1 o"o"lod 10' ",bli.. . bocoro., '" . o. cl •• l •• 01 $PACE Jour • • 1. ""'tt .o,. ,,,.f.,,0<1 !+I.,., ••"'••• '"0'0'1'' ''''' ,o. SUISCIIIPT'ONS U.itO<l 510'" .. 0<1 C ...d. ' I.~O JOU, •• I. , . 0. h . '14. NOIh.II1 •• ,,0< ,.. , (f ..., ,.",•• 1. "to"o'" For.19. U .OO "Of Y,. f. fl •• , •••• d .11 .ubw' ''I1o •• 10 S'ACE 1 0~0 ..... ADV!UISING Ad •• ,t".I.~ , . ..... ill b. I", ;,h. d O. "quo, 1 10 S" ... En ,. ,pf"". , . 0. 10 ' OM , N. ,h. ill •• I • • n...... N. " Yo< • • nd ~~;'~'." 'L;; ~:~:I.~·:::DO~.%·:T"~c:;..:.4J 11t'·~·~I:l t. , .r. .L~~·:c!·~o ~.is ~:;k.!oS: .: C~~b;~-:lln~:.:!~'. ~~,~:. \! So...I•• W ...... 'ortl •• d . 0, •.• 0 •••• ,. Colo .• H ou'I .... T••.• Tul ... Okl •• puni SHIN G S","CE Jo .... l i. Ih. 1'111... 1 orq •• 01 .h. ~od., Ci •• "'.' ,onom;,.1 .....ocl." .... t"~. . . .~· p, or. •• • 0.·poI: ,:"I . • • d .due.. i"" . 1 o, ~ •• ,.. ' lo. I. H.n! .. ill • . AI.b . mo . Th. Jp .. . ol ;, p .bll .... d q.",.,I, br Sp .... h •• , ,,, :,. ,, "' " . ,ill •• To, n." ... APpli cotio. 10' .. cp.d·,I .. , " ,W' q P.,mit p.. dlnq . 1 N•• h,ill., hn n..... . () br S.. oco Inc. IfSI. SP ' " ~ ••• ,p'I,.. , 1.<.; G.o,~. J . M,,,id , " . , .. F .. d W, ;q",. y." • •. ~i<h .'d H"n. y. " ..: Tho.,. , G ..... I CO.'IOI. J. 1<4 5."'''' ••• 1 ...... E. No,d .olt. DI,oe ' o •. ° KI .. ,:foc I., .• i. Jour • • I. Sch . lto<. space journal �fDITDRIAL Proj ect ing With Space Journal B y J a m es L. D a n i el s, Jr. ...OC;U. editor Recently I had lunch wi th a Sunday supplement maga zine editor who is interelted in our magazi ne ven ture in the ~poce foeld. This editor, a veteron of neo rly three de<;o des in the publishing bUliness, asked a ques tion which has come to us in various forms from reoden, advertisers, and publishe.. , "What has SPACE Journal to ofter thot any other magazine h\l$n 't?" Then, 01 course, he osked the logical ,ubsequen t queltions about diredion ond ob· jectives. The onlWer to the basic question is .imple: SPACE Journal ofters the layman the belt Ihinking 0 1 Ihe leoding o uthori lies in the os l/a-lciences and in Space Age philosophy in lan_ guage that he, the laymon, can understand. The layman cannot get such authentic and informolive material else where for two rea~on$: one, these outhors do no t normolly appear in ather populor mogozin e s; two, when their work is p ublished it is usually in technical and sc ie ntific publica tions and in complex technical language which the laym a n conna l understand. From this an.wer the logical extension of the first question ori'e., "Why?" The ans wer to this one falls in the cotegary 01 objectives and direction. The "why" we wish to afte r the layman space informotian becomes the "whot" 01 our o b jective and the " where" and "which" 01 our di redion. Our objective is the motivation of man to survive. We believe that the human race can conti n ue 10 develop o nd to survive on ly through mo vi ng ou t into the Yo st rea ch es 01 this e verexpanding unive"e. We want no ordered, stognant, communal exis tence and slow intellec tual deoth under government-regulated birth. life, and deoth, no Brove New World-restriclions which necen ar il y wi ll be imposed if man remai ns roo ted 10 terra firmo. As Mal thu. knew, the Earth has ih limit. in numbers 0 1 animol, it can support. Already scien tists are predicting that within a lew year. the elimination of most animal Iile other than human will be a necenity. Even wi th scie ntific and tech nologica l e ftkiency that may surpass all known bounds, mo n, if he reo mains on Earth, will ultim ately hove to curb his indisc riminate spawning and cramp himself into lor less spoce per person thon he now hos, even in his postage stomp urban lots and tenement hovels. He will be lorced to sac rifice hi. individuol existence to the 5upreme organism, the Ito te, so thai, once achieved, Ih e me tabolic b a lonce of the whol e con b e moin lo ined. Finally, if man does achieve Ihis precarious bolance lor physical survival on Earth, he must eventually perish with his OWn sola, system when ils life givin g sun 01 lasl goes oul. Th e re fore, we mu,t gel ou!. O ur earth bound frontiers o re gone; we must e xplore the new ones; we musl open the universe lor man's incenont migration so Ihot he may con tinue to grow, to e~pand hi, power to comprehend, and to progren up Ihe infinite ladder of lime. Hol d ing the se view I, SPAC E Jou.no l has no difficul ty in choosi ng its direc tion. The rou te through space ;s via the mind of the layman. for it i. the laym a n who will "foot" the bill for space e ~ plorotion . II is th e layman who.e world Or worlds will be left to his progeny. Thus he i$ most vi tally a ffected by every step towo rd spoce explorotian, and we believe he recogni zes this. And nOw tha t the science fiction venture1 o f a lew years ago have completed the cycle from vague po .. ibility to certainty, in the ligh t of technological advonces in the missile ona solei. lite fields, the loyman hungers to knaw-Ia know what he is going to pay for, to know whot he ;s leaving to his children. We of SPACE Journal wanl him 10 know. We wan l him 10 pay for and pau on to his progeny Ihe opportuni ty and the challenge 10 survive--Io insure the perpe tuity of human kind ;n thi, grond cosmos. And we b elieve th o l th e more he knows the mare he will be motiva ted to do just that-the mare he will be willing to assume his obligation to his own species. • 2 space journal �$ P " C E PH I LO SOPHY I t h' purp ose 01 rna n in t h, un i verse By Io ~ n H ~II.y ".' ,,",. I. ".,'<10 . nd .d , · '.' •• I. '-'." and ,,.. U. " ... 5'.' ... . ' ad.· "'; •• ., •••• 'v," I•• ~. " , . ,.,••• f W.,ld w., Ito'" II. " . ,. i n 19 .. II. ,.. 11<0, " .... . f., ,,.. 0".,•• 1 $"., .. " ~,.I'., ., • k.".,'.' a n. "'" ... II,. h' ...... _.. i.n.1 SId , ~ ;., Wa,k; ••,•• _,a,'''' .1 ,,.. M.,,"" i; , ,.. " ••. '" ",., •• , he "'., In W .'~;"'.' . D. C, ... ",... ,.. I. 1 , .. _,h ;nt. _ , . <10'" .... '••• p."......... I,... to. .,.,... ,01 0_00". In h is series of SSC lolks, published os The Nolvre of the Un iverse (Slockwell, 1950), ostronomer fred Hoyle conc1 vded with a queslion and a surmise. " What is mon ' s place?" he asked. Arc we " ingenioul mochine,," hoving no signi fi cant conne ction wilh the cosmos? Or is the Sible righl in plocing man at the cenler of the un'verse, the primary abiec t of a persanol Gad's solicitude? Diuotisfied with available canclusianl. he offered an opinion both humble and hopeful , When by pa lie nl inquiry we learn the answer 10 any problem we always find, balh as a whole and in detoil, that the answer thus revealed is finer in concep t and design Ihan anything we could ever have arrived at by a random guess. (p. 118( Withi n their fie ld. ecologists would p roba b ly concur. Eoch nalural species-animal or plon t-seems so perfeclly mode for its specifIC 10lk Illot one is led to expect to find a similar perfection in tile lIuman organism. Ecology studies Ihe way tile various species inleroct in tile noturol scheme. One of tile most fam iliar examples of Illis interaction is Ille bee wllich, in its qvest for nectar. transfers fertilizing pollen from flower to flower. A sim ilar coordination of work appears among all til e species. Plan t seeds pan in!ad Ihroug ll a nimal digestive systems, tllus achieving wi de dissemination and good opportunity for growth. Tile effect of tile worm', dige.tive J0hn H II ( ( ey aelivily is 10 ferlilize the soi l; Ihe diges tive habit s of one species of woodpecker serves to preserve cerlain trees from deslruelion by e xcessive beelle populations, and so on. Und e r close scru tiny, nature's interaction oppea" 01 cooperative as it is compe titive. Individuals 01 each speciel, seeking tlleir own fulfillment, actually playa creative porI in a much larger pattern, Pllotosyntlletically, plants convert solar ro y. into food wh icll the insects, reptiles, and animals of ocean, forest , and plain gradually pyramid into wllat ecologists call the " clima~ culture ." A growing respee! for na ture derives from !lIis 60-year old science. For ins!once. the natural balance of species in any locality appears to be a richer and more eff'oeient utili zer of solar energy than man brings about artifi_ cially , Tllis discovery lias led to Ille development of so·colled " orgonic " forming , tile compost lIeop, ond many ather changes in conservation, fishing and ogr icultural pro· grams, All Illese conclusions apply, tllen, to tile otller species. 8u! tile lIuman role is not so clear, Til e e co log y 01 man has yet to be explained. Wit hin tile natural balance on Eartll, he seems not to fi l at all: Nat ural communities are clloracleriled by a posi tive or favorab le energy budget, Many, perhops most, areas controlled b y man are exploited, resulling in a negative energy budget, !lIe final mark of wllich is unp roductiveneu and abandonmen t. (Encyclopedia Bri. tonnica, 1954; " fOla nt Ecology') The fire. clearing, drainage, agricullure, cily_building, smoke, etc. of lIuman o clivily in terrestrial hillory seems to work counler to all 3 spa ce journal �-the delicate en ergy ·e~chan ge of nalure. Man h(1$ POW!)fI which permit him to overwhelm, ex terminate , or exploit all other species, Organic farming and conservation programs barely mitigate hi. tendencies to crush all before him. Throughou t his history on Earlh, man hos appeared anomalous. For overbalancing Ihe other species on the plonet, hi. role hos seemed more deslruclive Ihon anything else. Calling upon Ihe sian ond the heovens for salva tion , he ho. wor~ed , fough t, suffered and died-oflen carrying to hi. grove the deepest doubts about the purpose and value of his ClO. i stence. Wherea s all o ther elements of the nolural order seem to fond their places and to fuifilliheir roles in colm acceptance, human beings e .... ibi, confusion. Why Ihi, (In,,iely, this slorm ond stress? Wh(ll is m(ln's ploce in the universe (lnywoy? An(llYling his oe!ivity wilhin the fr(lme of n(lture on E(lrlh h(lS 5(1 f(lr yielded no sotidoctory ecologicol e"pl(lno· ti(ln. Recent events h(lve (lpened up the ide(l of on entirely new an swer to the ancient riddle. As ou ter spoce becomes (I felt reolity , (IS in ter_ planetary exp loration becomes a ,cien tific possibility, a new hypothesis about man presents itself. Nature surely exlends for beyond anyone planet. forth spins wi thin (I univene, whose my riad stars almost certoinly hove evolved countless planetary systems teeming with life. Man's p lace in the nolural scheme, ,hen, may be one which extends beyond Ihe limils of (I single planel. Since Golilea, the ideo of a living, popu la ted universe has been fomilior . Thot;s the outlook of leading (lslronomers lodoy-e.g ., Jones and Hoyle of Greol Britain, Shapley and Struve of Ihe Uniled Slates. At least Iwo of these men furlher believe thot biochemical lows favor 0 simil(lr evolution on other pl(lneh. No one specifies Ihe color o r site, bul the sta ted probabil ity is thot-if we keep going 4 space iournal oul inlo space-thi', or a later, general ion will encounter beings resem bling us. If hum(ln beings o.e indeed (I normol planetary developmen t Ihroughout the universe, 0 theory of man should extend beyond Ihe con fines of ony one pl(lnel (lnd become broadly applicable. While (lur scientific observations ore mostly limiled to this si ng le world, neve r· Iheless our theorelical framework should (lPprooch m(ln (IS a commonplace orgonism fre_ quently occurring (lnd ac ti ve in Ihe larger natural «heme. Within the acknowledged limilation of our experience, a philosophical (lppraach 10 the problem C(ln ye t be made from avail(lble scien tific sources. The allied disciplines of evolution(lry biology (lnd of ecology offer Ihe basis. Cerlain characte.istics distinguish man from other species, but they do nat nece narily set him (lparl from nature itself. As a mammal, man co nverts specifIC forms of energy into a ther forms. Within his own body he inge.ts ond processes ce rlajn frui ls, nuts, leaves, rools , flesh and banes inlo sound, Ileal and action. His defeC(llion and finally his dead body nourish plants. Thus he forms on integral link in Ihe nolural energy chain. His differences may simply fit lIim for (In inle'pl(lnetary .ole wililin the cosmic natural pa ll e rn. Tile same four limbs which in otller mammals are designed eilher for quodrupedol walking or tree·clim bing, seem particularly designed on human being s for anolher pur· pose: erect posture frees the h(lnds for tile manipulolion of lools, wlle ther rudimentary or ultromodern. Eree! poslure also raises Ille vision and makes it easie r 10 focus upward and outward. An inslinctive inlerest seems 10 lead man to a close scrutiny of Ihe heovens. For him (ls lronamy is the "queen of sciences" ond, for millennia, tile only one. In Ihe early periods of lIis progress he builds mylils or religions aboul tile celesliol bodies, worsllipping Ihe �I'r------------------------------------~~~--~=-=-~~ Sun and Moon, Jupiter, Venl,ls and Mars, or Queholcoatl, or Odin. He iocoles his future salvation in on vnearlnl), or o ther-worldly life in Heave" . He ';Ilks hi s military adven tures wilh celestial port en ts and his omO'O\l' desires to the Moon or 10 Star·du sl. In all limes and pll;lces, his hislory reveals (I troubled conscious· ness of the great un;"cue oround him. Th i, c e le.t ial focul di ffe rentia tes him a nd narrOw, hi, rang e of re ceptivity. If othe r onim a l. o re 1'101 for •• igh ted enough to .ee the ,10". and olmo. t c cr ta inly ign ore them , they ",ake up fa. it by perceiving th in g. wh ic h mo n fo il. 10 nOl e . A do g heo" .ound. whi c h Ihe human eOr miHcl . The o wl ,,, ike' 01 it. m i c <J ~t prey Vlhen h..,rnon be in g. Ore 10.1 in the dar k. Ne ady all anImal. fallow t ellial ~ scents too refined lor human perception . Bah and fi.h re.pond to vibra tions which me'" cannot feel ; and '0 on. HumCln perception of Ihe cele.tiClI e nvirClnment Clnd relCltiYe inJensiliyity to eClrlhly .ounds, smell,. a nd yibratiClns ClppClrently con stitute an innate opeciCllil Cltion withi", th e nClturClI ,cherne. f rom Ihe inyention o f Ihe leYer and Ihe whe e l down to the launching of ar tificia l e mlh sCltellites. man hCl' reveClled CI dilli ntlive ability to corry oul in creasing ly complex operations . This ability depend. upon hi. elaborate communicat ion ,y.tem . Many .pecie. (e.g. bi rdsl u. e .ystems of , ignol. sounds, move' mento. vibrat io n.-Io coordinole group activiti e s. The human Iystem of .ym b ols is much mare elaborate . One of the malt a rticulate of Our speciel on Earth, Shake.pe are. i, colcula led to have u.ed over 25,000 diffe rent word.; and. of cour.e, on individu a l under · stand. more word s than he ule, . Through ward •. man communicate, a partial reproduction of certain procellel, both natural and artific ial. If he is ju.t one of the nolurClI specie. having a parliculor ecologic al func · tion, limi tCllions on hi. foculti'H are to be e ... pec led . For inslonce, he can d e scribe the growlh and decline of the . Ion and galaxies of OUr universe, but he (.onnot tell why Ihe univers e e ... isll. His reproduction of these prOCCHe. i. descriplive. com parative, analogi. cal. He knows how 10 make an atom e ... plode, b ut he does nol know why an atom or On uplosion is. Eve n wi thin the descriptive realm hi. capacity to re produce re ality in word. rea ches limils beyond whi ch he cannot go. How big or how old i. the universe? Such a question lead. beyond man' s needs for pracIi cCl I activily. Here hi. symbol. foil. On the one hand, he canno t conceive Iho l lhe un iverse slops in a certain place, because lomething wo uld have 10 b e b e yond ; an the olher hand , he uses Ihe word infinily, b ut cann o l reCllly imagine iI, He ha s equal diftkulty in cancei ying either thaI the universe had a beginning or that it did not. Man i, no l omn'<eie nt. nor capable o f being omniscient. Hi. men ta l equ ipm e nt is not d e · signed to enoble him 10 comp,e"end all the mysteriel and ull imClte mea ni ngs, Ho wever , it io well des igned 10 e nabie him to op e rale 01 a certa in level wi lhin Ihe uni yer.e. He co n learn the molian s o f the ,Ita n a nd planels, the gr avilic , electromagnetic and othe r field. of au ler spoce, th e pri n cipl.s Clnd mechanici of flighl. for Ihi••or t of purpose, indnd, his equipmen l see ms pe rfe ct. Instinctively, oe nlienl "umon being s haye long been drCl wn 10 Ihe id e Cl of flighl, For cen luriel men have o Clually dr~om e d of flyi n g . lindberg" 's (falling of the ~lla nlic Ocean drew forlh CI grea ter popula r re sponse Ihan the viclories of military heroes. From boy· hood on, men find .peciol Ihrills in 'peed, in operaling complu machinery, in lilt ing b. hind Ihe controlboard of fa st·mo ving vehicles, in eAplor;ng Ihe unknown. Wi thin the limi lCl lion l of Earthly life, men pul " roc ket" eng;n=; in the ir cars, mount hig" sla bi/i u r fi n. on Ihe rear fenders, and .eek rides which will toke I"em " out of this world. " They read lIuck Rogers and other 'pace or ,cience fi ction . Such dreaming, reading , Clnd ploy-ac ting seem wholly nalurol if the make·believ. of tod ClY prepares for Ihe realily of tomorrow . Eco logic al anoly.i. luggelts Ihot each species, pursuing ils own ends, not only pro mote. its own lurv; Yal but actually piaYI a useful role in Ihe buitd·up of a rich, na tural paltern of energy-e ... change. Why space flight is importon' 10 human ends will be dilcuned in a IClter CI ,lieie. T"e ecological 5 space journal �~I quellion here under discussion is: How does Ihol octivi ty contribute 10 Ihe nalural bolonce? To this question, onalogy suggests thaI fertilizotion may be Ihe answer. Within Ihe limi ts 01 a single plonet, birds, bees and many olher animals disseminate Ihe seeds and pollen of Ihe plants. In Ihe e~ploralion of planets, many of them either comple tely rocky and dusty or else supporting only rudimentary forms of life, men would naturally seek Illasc planets which could support odvonced life -forms. To these he would bring plon ts ond animals to suppor t human cultures. Prcsumobly he woul d bri ng some back, too. He would Ihus ac tually enrich natural oclivity in Ihe area of his explorations. like on interplanetary bird or bee, his disseminating agency would contribute to the profusion of life on tfle plane ts he reaches. He may do more. l ong·period comets and polar shifts may become subjecl to his forecasting. Ultimately he may seek to exert his influence to prepare for, mitigate, or per· hops even oRset any major impacl. Such activities are familiar to him in his Earthly his lory of developing new lands and conli. nenls. An ances tral foreshadowing of the 6 space journal ac livi ly is contained in two of the mos l memorable biblical accounls: Ihe variant stories of the crealion and ferlilizotion of the Earth (Genesis 1 and 21; and the slory of the preservation of species in Noah 's ark (Genesis 7). His future aClivities in the uni· verse may resemble those ancient tales. The hypothesis developed in Ihe preceding sections would also explain the strug gle s and strains of history. The main problems of suc' ceHive generations would be to develop the required ability, based on the amassing of observations and formulation of words / ideas. The flexing of scientific muscles in wa r, the groping for purpose and meaning ful rel o . tianship to the cosmos-th rough religion, philosophy and poetry-would all contribute to the growth of the species toward its ma ture role in the universe. Such on incubation period may seem slow 10 a human individual. But the nalural uni· verse allows for long time·s pons. The ages of stars and planets are numbered in billions of years. The grawth of a rich natural balance in a swamp may require millions of genera· tions of insecls. Ecologic p ragreuion may depend upon thousands of generations of one type of anthropoid displacing thousands of generations of another. It tokes a caterpillar only a few weeks to develop into a butterfly. But the activities of the butterfly are relatively simple. II seems well within the time· spons of Ihe natural "heme if humans require a few hundred genera tiOns to evolve within thei r colleclive cocoon o r ineuba lion·planet, before ochiev· ing the elaborate operation of interplanetary flight. II these comparisons are valid, then the present historical moment is a vital stage of social troOlition from a quasi ·larval condition to that of full flight. Successful accomplishment of the transition will parlly depend on our true unders tanding of iu characler and purpose. To that end, this article has been devoted to on interpretation of the function of human interplanetary flight from the point of nature as a whole. A loler article will review the usefulness of space flight directly 10 humans, evaluating its importance for Our growth and ultimate SUfv;vOI. ��SP A C E SA TE L LITES I launch ing the explorer sat e llit es B y J ames J .. ",. . l. $".."y _, be,," ;" C.d., I.o;d •• I. w• • on .. ... " I l . 1911 . . . . ." ." ..... w .... "i.... M.d C'"......"".1, .1.. ["'U ... eo• •1><.'......" •. 5 ••, _ , . . 1>-0.. '0_ !>lat. do_"'_>C,. " " _ ,. . .. .. ... ..... """ _ , ••• ,. ' ho foo, d . f ....... , , _, _ ' _' " . , . 19.0 . . .100 ..... , M'",10 ..... o. "_,_ ... _,. "'''''''e On November 8, 1957, the Secretary of Delense announced that the U.S. Army was to participate in the scientifIC p rogram of the International Geophysical Yeor. II is now 0 matter 01 history Ihol 83 days later 01 4.8 seconds after 10:55 P.M. [EST) on Jonuo ry 31, 1958 , bplorer I wos placed in orbit, and in 114.8 minutes it had completed its first journey oraund Earth. Many readers, both students and prac ticing engi neers, are fomilior wi th Ihe length 01 time Ihot e lapses between Ihe initio lion of a design ond Ihe .ealization 01 the operating hardwore. It is ob"ious thai 0 task of the magnilude required for Ihe launching of on Earth .atellite cannol be carr ied out within on 83-doy pe· riod wi thout utili zing a grea t deal of e}listing hardware, and this hos been true in the E..plorer program . f or a number of ye ars the Army Ballistic Missile Agency has been developing Ihe Red· stone, a medium range, surlace 10 surface, ballistic missile. When the intermediate range bollistic miuile, Jupiter, WO I ossigned 10 the Agency, it was recognized th a t the de"elopmenl program could be compressed if certain c rit icol compo nents ond subsystems could be flight. lested during the time Iho l design and production of the basic Jupiter missile were be- Th •• ,.1, . , ',uelur. <on'"in inll .h. L. ing accamplished. The eKisting Redstone mis' ,ile proved to be a valuable te.1 ve hicle for this purpo.e, and a cerloin number of the le miuile. were modified and renamed Jupiter-A. This pro"ed to be (l satisfac tory solution to many of the design and d e "elopment problem. for Jupiter components; however, there was one outs tanding problem which required od"anced teding techniques, and thi s was the famous re-entry problem. The major task, in this case, was the protection 01 the Jupiter warhead Irom the terrific heat generated by fric lion as it re -ente", ot hypersonic velocities, the atmosphere from essen ti ally outer space conditions. In o rder 10 obtain "ilal test data under oclual conditions with e}listing hardware, it was necenory 10 " soup up" the ba'ic Redslone design. This called lor the use o f a higher energy fue l tho" normally is required. This fuel, unsymme lrical dime lhylhydrazine, afforded Ihe necessory inc rease i" the thrust level for Ihe engine. I" odditio", th e burning time of this b ooic Redslo"e thrust unit forming the fin l stage of this composite missile was i"<reased by lengthening Ihe propella"l ta"ks. This could be done since the weight 01 the uppe r stages was less tno" Ihol 01 Ihe Redstone top uni t which it replaced. Even the.e measures were insufficie,,' to give the a"erall performa"ce required, and so additional propuls'on stages were needed. These were designed, developed, and tested by the Jet Propulsion Loboratory of the Coliforn'a Institute 01 Technolog y. At this time they were working an 0 "oriely of solid ·propellont missiles for the Army Ordnance Corps and were confident that. w,th some modifications, they hod rockel mOlars suitable lor Ihe task and thai Ihey J"pH.,. C ",iu il. ... iI n_"", ,",in9 a' Cope Con".. ,,,I, '10. SK onD' hf",,_ .he mi .. ;!. i, r.,. d ond 0".' "II 'e'" "nd f"./ing "r. ,om pl.'.' th o .".. <t .. , . i. t oll. d 0"0, f'om .h. mi"it.. I Siamy ..... 8 J.______-=~'p__. _c_e__io__"_'n_._I________________•___ o;____________________. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , i ���Cu'a"'", .1..... 0/ f. plo,. " , ud m . 'a.h ." '. II"~' "'. ".u,. <o.""c 'ad;,,'lo~ ;ft.ld. "ftd ou,,/d • •h .",.11;,• . The low power tr ammi trer ape rate d on a frequency o f 108 megac ycles, and the high pawer transmitter aperated on a frequency of 108.03 meg a cycles. The low powe r Iron,. miller was elt pected ta transmi t data for Iwo ta Ihree month , before ih batteries d ischarged; Ihe high power transmitter, on the arher hand, wa s e~pecred to lost only two weeks. These e~pectatians have been ful. filled. The onoly ticol prablem of determining ho w the outer surfoce of the sotettite should be prepared in orde r 10 obtain prope r tempera- 'Mu.;'" .1.. ,1" 0/ "'. '.or;'. ","" ,ei... "ftd '. "'p.,a'u,•• rure con lrol of Ih e interior is a very diAkuh one . The veh icle is eltposed to Ih e lutt rodio. rion of the Sun; a nd, in turn, il becomes 0 rad iating body os il pones inro Eorlh's shodow. The tempera ture ollumed by th e inrerior mechanisms depends on this rodiotion bolance and the heot conduction parh be. twee n Ihe electronic compone nts and the e xte rior envi ronment. In view of this, it is desirable to measure the temperolure at severa l points inside and outside the soleJtite, and this info rmat ion is 01 vital imporlance for the proper design of future soleliites. " space iournal �Erosion by cosmic debris is also on impor· tont foclor, The meosuremenl of it is mode in two ways: firsl, by means of on ,mpacl microphone mounted on Ihe ederior surface of Ihe so leliile which regislers collisions occur· ring anywhere on the outside of the satelli te, The microphone e~periment indicotes the fre· quency of impoci by particles with more Ihan a cerlain minimum momenlum, Second, 0 syslem of grids composed of very ,moll wires wound on a care waS i",lolled neor Ihe oft end of th e so teliile 10 measure impocts by me teorite particles greoter Ihan 0 certoin minimum man. The meteori!e e~perimen! was designed by M, Dubin of the Air Force Combridge Reseorch Cenler. A geiger counter and on a ssocia ted scoling circui l were 0110 included in Ihe Explorer I for th e purpose of mea.uring cosmic ,odiatian and transmitting its in tensi ty back to Earth. The measuremenh were all made continuously ond transmi tt ed simulioneously, and no type of information storage device was used. Dat a gathered by the ,olellite was picked up by ground stations du ring the 10lellile's postage over head, This cosmic roy experimen t was designed by Dr. James A. Von Allen of the State University of Iowa. In addition to information received directly from th e satellite through its instruments, il also provides basic scientific informotion simply by being in orbit. Ground observo· tions of the so tellile p rovide da ta obout the ionosphere, Ear lh'l mognelic field, and olmos· ph eric density Ihot, un til now, hos been based on indirecl evidence ond theoreticol ossump_ tions. Accurate optical and rodio observation of changes in the .oieliile's orbit also provide basic informa tion as to grovilolionol onomalies in the Eort h's fie ld. The exact amoun t 10 which Eorth', shope deviotes from on idea l sphere can thus be dete rmined from such observations. '-inol ou*mhl, 01 .h hplor., I .....11,.. On. .0•• Ifi,*', ' ... 0 ,,,dig "on. ",iff." i• • i.ihl. in Ih ... ' ion of th '0".' �9 Explorer III which wos subsequen tly lounched is 01'0 in orbit ot this lime. Thi. vehicle is gath e ring and Iransmitting the same type of information 01 Explorer I. There arl! enen lially no differences between the carrier vehicle or Ihe loun ching methods of Ihe la lel liles. The'l! ore, however, levero' .ignificanl chonge. in the instrumentation of Explorer III. A maior chonge in Ihe sa tellile is the oddilion of a miniature lope recorder, d e veloped by Ihe Stole University of lowo. This device ;s collecling ond recording on tope Ihe dolo an ca.m;c rodiat ian encountered during Ihe 10101 orbit. This informa tion ;s played back upon a .ignal given from a ground slalion. The lope is then automatically erased and rese l. Scientists consider information gained from Ihi s memory sys lem a marked improvem e nl over Ihal of Explore r I. The first sOlellite dispolched dala conlinUQusly; bul it wa s recei ved only in areas under the orbilal bond Ihol hod ' h g./g ... <Dun,,", ~,.eI ,~ ,< bo.h loplor." lor .. e",.,e "eM 01 <0, .. 'or in .....i.r· I~" e " ,em.l, .",,,/1 .ope 'K",eI..., in hpj",., m, 'Korel. elo'" .... ,~ . pr ....... of co • ..,ic fOY. eI",I., 'h ,,,'el/;,.·, ,,,101 orbi,. On " . Igna! I,,,,,, r"rth, ,e<MeI., f.potl • •h. ;nl .............. II ~o, ,,,,h.,.J eI",in, 'be orbi" ou'o· "'''',colf, ........ ".d ...... if.ell_11 In " I... ,.<ond. .b. ,h. Il sp~ce iourn~l �- -,.' 0' w 0' w W 0 ' W .... ,. 'NON AU'" "'. . ~ 'I?- ~" .. .. w ~. (j)~....... • w ':~ ,.' ~ .. , .. -",~ . u"",, " .. -' . . W .. - -~--~ '" The prela rlc hing pro cdu.e for o th b · plorers waS uch like th standard 0 erotion fo r o<!y lorg , liq uid-pro elled mis8l2.3A~ 1 of the function of checkou , propulsio ,syst e m tes ting, fueli g, ozimuth ing chedou e tc. we re rh. "'It l o u' ", bjl$ 01 r.pl",. , III o_e, .h fguh. Th. .h. ",.d ", Jupjte r.C. . . M<1t I"yn<he c/ .,,'ollilo, w,u " 35 dell'" i nc/; no" " " to .h. Equo'O<. Th. , .... lliI. ;, otbj,ing On on ."......,.-;,,1 bond be ....... ,h. 35th I",j· ",do. ""flit ond .oulit. the 10ll... r $1(1 es of Ihe as enl, 1'15{B.~ power planl pend e d. I r<Jf;"4, nd fell bad to Earll. The upp ... stages s'fi'o r y afte r.... ard re(lch the ape~ f Ihe arc. J 51 prior Ihe tim... hen the vehi Ie attained s m(l~i ­ 10 mum height, he second ground slo l;ons. Mony blanks thus occurred ;n Explorer 1', record, partitulorly when Ihe so/cUi le wos over large bodies o f water. El(plo.e r III, however, is sending out cosmic ro diolion information representotive of rhe 10101 orbit. Thus, there being conducted, for the ignmenl!, I emeler· orried oul. During 5 ge was fir The firs t ta ge of th ... missi le ca r ied Ihe payload to ilf perigee distance m the Earth. Other doges of t e missile reased the sa tellite speed 10 rha t ne<;es ory for orbi ting, a r hour. nimum 01 1 000 miles The upper st ges were spi 1-stabilized, in mu ch the monner a riAe bull This woo one by electric mot'}"c"m,o~"""",d"i\ ilh in Ihe n se sec· lion of Ihe ai n 5t 9 .... sto 5 w pr pell(lnl .5 first lime, (I compre hensive survey of 10101 cosmic "'Y intensity above Earth with respect 10 both time and po.ition. 14 space journal e SOlei· lite 'pro " ima re rbiting th of ap- YlCJOl!!!~""IlJLIlJ","ds. �SPAC E SATELLITES I spatial orie nt ati on 01 the exp lo, e, sateft ites By Cha.I•• A. l~n~.u; " So"'~ ()a •• ' •• "0' "",n ;n W,b· "*., .. I. ,"lln_',gH• • 0<,; .0<1 f, ... $0,'), D.".'. 5.... Co"," I. ,u9 ond ),,, 01,,,,,,, ... $I .. , hr. P~" ;" bo' . . ' .... f<Q .. ,100 Un"'''''' .f K.o>o •. II, .... a. a .. I,'onl ",.f... ", .f ••• ,n.. ,'n ••..-,,), •• ~. ,.,,' •• n'o Un;T"'''' S,.,. 010';'0 ,100 Aft. . . .,,,;n. ,100 .,.. , .. I ... " . . . . . . . . . ' Ito .. l~J ~ _'.d".li19SJ ......_ ~'.. ..-0. ,. 19J1i. U....... oil .. "", .............. ' .. 01., 1,... / ),;, ",..." ... ,1';. . . . . Ic), " C•• .t'. ~~yw;" ... d ....... . k'.;" 5oc'Io., 1..-,)' "01.". 0lIl<0 i. ,~. "-,,.y . . III.". """'" , ....... OIM.", . ... <Y_ 110 h ",.,,;0<1 ..nd ... The launchings of the forst United States salellites hove recei"ed widespread notic ... But less w .. n known is the analysis required os Ih e bodies continue to orbi t. The cam pl.. te reduction of scientific information from the satellites is a lang and laborious p rocess, and final canc h/sians can be reached only many months alter launching. One o f the ma ny interesting questions to be considered is the sa tell ite orienta tion or a lT itude in sp a ce. This consideration has many implica tions. Changes in the time for a re volu ti on about the Eo rth-Ihe period, Ihe str ength of radio signals received from the satelli te, the br igh lness of the body compa red to the stars, and the temperot ur es in Ihe satellite are all affecled b y Ihe salellite's orientation in space. When a buller leaves the muzzle of a rifle , it is spinning .apidly. In ils flight to the target, this spi n keeps the nose of th e bullet pointing forward_ Th e original orientation with which the spinning bullet began its fligh t is maintained by the gy.oscopic p rinciple. Thus, tile bullet's altitude or position relat;ve to the Earth, is fixed in space by rh e orie nla· tion of its axis a nd tile spi nning mo tion im - Cil arle5 Lu ndqu 5 t parted to it. The same p ri nciple is used in launc hing the hplorer sa telli tes. The last three . Iog es of the Jupiter·C ond the in, tru· menta ti a " packages are spinn ing from Ihe time the rocke t leaves tile g round. For this re a son the satellites enter th ei r orbi ls under much the same conditions as a bullet begin"ing its flight. If Ille. e satenites we re perFectly rigid bodies and if rhey were not acted upon by e xterna l forces, the tows of mechanic. demand tllar the o.ien totian of tile axi s of spin of the satellite remain Fore ver fixed in spoce_ (See fig. I.) By rllese same lows, the pol ar a~is of tile Ea rth is requi.ed to alway. point to the Narlh Star as Ihe Eartll revolve s in itt orbit, Til e Explorer bodies ar e, howeve. , aeled upon by external Farces. Furtller, E~p lorer I is no t a rigid body becau.e tile four antennas for one of its radio transmi tters are made of fle xib le coble. (See fig. 2.) Thus, the a tt itude of these sa tellites wi ll not be fixed in space . Fo r tllis re a son Ihe situa tion i1 .omewhat more complica ted and interes ling. Even at the normal height of pre.ent sa te 1liles, enaugll atm os p here remain. to re tard their motion, Tlli. re sis lon ce is proportional to rhe amount of sa telli te surface area pro· jected in the direction of ils flight. Tllus, tile Explorers in te rce pt 16 limes mare of tllese pa.lide. if rile y move broadside Ilion if they move end an. (See fig. 3.1 The corresponding atmospheric drag on the sa te ll ite body affech the shape of it. orbit and tll ese orbital changes may be observed. Then, iF tile arien· ta tion of Ille satellite, it. shope, velocity, and position are known, tile otmalpheric density may be deduced From observed orbital cllanges. '5 space journal ��ri ~u' • •. ""/Iud• .. hich und., idoo' cond,'ion. , h"lo'.' r .. ould ha •• " .. u",.d Another imporll:'"t fac tor in terrelated with orientation is the satellite's relative brigh tness as viewed from ' he Earth. This apporen' bright. nen, as compored to backgro~nd stars, primarily depends upon how the body is aligned with respect to the Sun and Ihe observer. Thus during dawn and dusk abservo· tion conditionl the salellite's alignmenl in space will de termine the reflecting surface visi b le to observers. Of course, the reflectivi ty of the satellite also e!tech its apparen t b rightnen. Studies have been conducted to judge the e!tecl of vorioUI solellite positions ond olignmenls on the el\posed reflecling surface ond the subsequent solellile brigh lnen at various attitude s, The assumed orien tation ond spinning mo tion could be verified by accurate m,... ~i<h II~u'. , . Tho £.t>I",o, , ,,, .. ift""'m.ftfO~Oft ""chg. ".,UI rho <on';'" 01 lourlh flogo, rh �obseryations wnich note changes in apparent brightneu. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Obseryotory is analysing such data. finally, orientation again is important because torques are exerted on these satellites since they act as canducton, spinning in the magnetic field of the Earth. These forces depend upon the direction and magnitude of the Earth's magne tic r,eld relatiye to the sotel· lite. The resi stance encountered, temperatures, apparent bright ness, radio signal strength, and electromagnetic torques for (I spinning ~oteflite haye been seen to depend upon its alignmenl in space. If the satellite is a sph ere, the r,rst three are not primarily affected by orientalion. Hence, all fiye factors are mos t interesting in the case of the Explore ... Changing Ih e point of yiew, each of these effect. may be used to help determine Ihe altitude of the satellite in space. Analysis of data from Explorer I supports the tenta tiv e conclusion that tile satellite went to (I small Iroction 01 tile original rate. As Illi. lIappened, a transition 10 th e final flat spin look place. Thi. transition from on axial 10 a flat spin may lIave been aggravated by flexing of Ille antennas wllicll would allow tile diuipotion of energy wilh very little change Icanse.votionJ of tile angular momentum due to tile spin transition. Tllu. the final angular momentum approximately equalled the initial angular momentum. At burnout tile final rocket stage of Explorer 1 hod a spin rate of approxima tely 750 .evolutians per minute about ils longitudinal axis. Th e respective momenh of inertia about Ihe longitudinal axis and Ihe fla t spin axis have a .atio of aboul 100 to 1. Tllis is due 10 the distribution of sateltite moss about END ON ATTITUDE inio a flat spin soon after it was launclled. (See fig. 4.1 The fint evidence of tllis was found by tile Californio Institute of Tecllnology, Jet Propulsion labora tory, from measurements of til e radio signols from Ihe satellite. During Ihe rorst few orbits about tile Ear lh, tile records point to a reduction of tile bulle t-l ike spin about tile long axis of the body 18 space journal BROADSIDE ATTITUDE f!g~, . J. O'"g ./I' . ..s "n Ih. f~pJo,., I .",.11"0 c/~. I" 'ho o, .. '~do 01 I" moss Th. <r<... ·h",.hoc/ ,,'o.. s Inc/i · ,,,,. 'ho .ol~",. ,w.", Io, ,he ."1.//,,. in ol'h., " po,,,lIo' C' po'puc/lout", ,,1II1uc/. 10 j" OIloil,,' polh . �predominonl feoture 01 lotcr records has been variation of radio sign a l ot.engt" having a period of app roxima te ly 8 seconds. A sample of such a re cord is shown in fig. 5. Tkis observolion is consis tent with a fla t sp in ond ind icates Ihol this is the ocluol condition. Due to the oblate for m of the eorth, the plane ond mojor oxis of the orbit both rotat e. As the bplorer I, in its flat spin, passes Ihrough the orbitol pe rig e e (closest po in t to th e Ea rth ] and is oeled upon by appreciable drag to rques, the orien tat ion of its rotational oxis wi!! be c hon ged . Forces of el ec tra- (I 'ig~'. ~. Th Wot ,pin 01 h pj",." r~. ,pin o , i, 10 no long., pO,,,U.1 .<> .~. rongitudi",,1 0 ' ;' r"di«>IIOM ", • •~o' ,~. ,o ,.rl". ~". " p.,io<! 01 oppro,;,.,., .." 8 .. <.,,,d •. I j the different oxes, If conservo lion of angu lor mom entum as mentioned b efore is assumed, th e n a flat spin role of 7.5 revolutions per minu te will result du e to th e 100 to I ratio. This rote of 7.5 revoll,llions per minute o r . 125 revolution per secorld corresponds to a Fill~" 5. A r, pico! m.a,y , .monl ,,/ ,111"'" ",ength I,,,", f.p l",., I . Noli<. thot th. "'''io, po., k (actu.,1 .I"nor ,,,,;,,,,,,,,) .,«~" .,pp,o.;m.,r.l, .. 8 "COn d., I"dk.,'i"" ., no, 'pi" ,,,,, I", ,he ,.".Ilire 01 rh ,., ... ,.Iol i •• lim •. ,.,.i •• d or, flat spin period of 8 seconds. {See fig. 4.) A 19 space journal �magnetic origin p robably «IU"~ .imilar devi a - tiom. Tempera ture doto re<:eived from the sol elli le yiel d. ,orn e insi g ht into rhis solutio n. Ex p ected various tem pe ratures o .. umptions of calcula te d sOl elli te under orienta tion ho ve be e n compared wi'h temp eratu re me a. UH!ments made On board the solelli te a nd leleme lered 10 the Ea d h. The o verage in_ te rio. te mperatu re, calculate d on the assump ti o n of 0 flat . pin and an axial spin about 'h. long ~ ,~ ,~ m 0 ll<> &00 0 T (. I() - :Jl9i ,,0 0 o DOt? 0 0 00 (J 0 0 ,~ '" " 0 0° 0 0 >0 0 ......T 5"'" .~ ,~ ....... 30 ~ 10 "'"' ..... 01<11<0 -lO ~ '" 0 fig",. 6 . G,ap~ ,.I"';(I~,h;p d e p,<I, 'he h'w.en me", " u,. d "no:! .. peele d 'emp.'''_ , ty, .. t'''Mm,lIed b, f . plo,., 20 space journal ~ ~ ~ '0 ~ '0 T I·F I Oll;S, ore shown in on illustralion. [See fig. 6.) The cirded points are temperatures measured on the satellite. Note that the observational do to doe s not agree with temperatures to be ellp e cled if Ihe bullel-like sp in remained unchanged; Ihal is, if the Iran silion ta a flat spin did not take place. Ho wever, d uring Ihe first twenty days, the p red icted temperatures for the case of a flat sp in wh a se alli s is fi xed in spa ce do not agree we ll e ith e r. If, as p reviously suggested , the orienlation of the axis about which the flat spin i. e xecuted, changes due to exlernal forces, the expected lemperatllre would have values fl uc tuating in Ih e neighborhood of JO O" K. This is in a gree ment with th e abser · vationol doto . The Smi th so n ian Astroph ysical Observatory has re porte d variolion in the rate of change of t he orbital period . This might also be relaled to the satellite attitude through prope r onol ysi s. The flexible ontennos, whi ch probobJy cause d th e flat spin conditions on Ellplorer I, we re omitt e d on Explorer Ill. Pre liminary t!vi denc e indicote s that the tran sition to a flot sp in is muc h le H ropid fo r this satellite. Thus. im p rovement in the sotellite configuration was accomp lished by analysis of ovoilable information from Explorer I records. As this is written, the satellites in question are still orbiting and transmitting data. The analysis of the above phenomena is continuing. The final result of these studies wiU be a n under standing of what tho orientation of the satellit e s has been d uring their lives. Thil picture must be Cortsis!enl wilh the obse rv atianal data on the varieties discussed. Onc e Ihi. co nsistent pic t ure is ab tairted. it can in turn be used with confidence in the onolysis ortd del Nmirta l iort of the mor+y queslior+s o b o ut space a nd spoc e ve hid e s. �S , , c: ( '11AllSIS , Ii f e Dn I 'ft" S' " h lln,. r, D', .,'., . f .. ,_, ~ . ,., . 0'" Offl, • . "' .. . l olt '''', ,.i"ll• • • • n" . ~. , bo," In NI.d."I .. "."k. c;., ... n•• O... ", bo •• 19 13 . .... . ".n"-<l ,,~ •• I .1 ' ," ~I • • ", . nd .. . !I,. c. I•• " ~I. d. "...,. In p~",I" .' Vni ..... " .f , .. bl ..." I. 1936 . .... " ",to... ,.",1, .. ," 0. . H• •• 001 •• ,. 0."'0.., of t ho c;. 1... _t... ,_. . 'Ow"". !.. ...... .,,0. . 0.. $t .. .. .... , ...1. . . . . . . . _,~ ;0 c..... t ~ ,,;t' , ho 0. ..... _ , t .... t .. , ... V· , O.ld'" .1 ..1... 110 ........1_ ' ..... TlI . . to' I .... ;t.;. I, ItOd 0.,1 • • d.d; . . .' . ' ..", .. , ....... ,,; .. ,,,,. ..... .., .1 •• ,_," ........"".1 .". _.. .. t. ' ......, __ ~; .t, , Part II All the countlen observations of celestial bodi es, many of them with the mast ingenio"s methods known to modern science. have not yet given us a definite proof of the exidence of life in places outside 01 Ollr own Earth . The only direct indication of the possibility 01 living motler existing on another star is the observation of green patches on the surface 01 Marl. These polches e~pond during the Morlian Iprino and Slimmer and recede again during fall and winter. They are commonly interpreted as being cOIl,ed by green plants, probably nO I 100 different from our mOHes and Ikhens. Olher than this one ob· servation. no trace 01 life has ever been observed in the universe . And yet, scientists state with a high degree of certainty Ihal life must be expec'ed to exist on other slars. They bOle .his stalemen' on a simple rule which, for a long time , has served as a most powerful and a mos' succeuful guide to the biologist. II simply stole, that when the nece.· sory conditions for a certain developmenl are fu lfilled , nature initiole s this development very readily. Applying thil rul e . we mus t ex· pect that life hO I developed on many other celestial bodiei on which the necessary con - ···lif. Oft Ern s I B, oth., Sto .. :· PD" 1958 . p . 10. I , S' ,,"CE JOU'" DI, .p,ing , Dt~er star s Stu h I n 9 e r dition, lor its development were met at one time or another. A. we onumed in the first par t 01 thi. article,' Ihere ore obout 100,000 planets withi n our galo~y whi ch very probably are iimllor to Eor!h. Thot pori of our universe which can be observed with todoy's means (ontoins. in oli likelihood, no less than len thousand billion planets on which , at some time, condi lions were lauorable for Ihe developmen' 01 life . What, then, are these conditioni? Fin', there mu~1 be a soufce to supply energy in on adequate lorm to the living organ;sm~. Second, there mud be a source 01 "building material " to provi de Ihe proper row ma teri al lor their growth. Third, there must be water. Fourth, the te mperature variations must be within reo.onoble limih, about - 20 C 1_4 FJ to 80 C (176 FJ. Fifth, there must not b e an excessive amount 01 poisons or ot her agents detrimental to living mailer. Once life has developed on a planet, it may well adopt itself to leu stringe nt conditions. Many o rganism~ on Earth li ve and even thrive in regions where the temp e ra ture regularly drops lor below zero or where there i5 no waler or air. However, it is not probable Iho' living organisms could grow th rough Ihe very early phases 01 their ontogene tic development if the temperolure dropped (ons iderobly below zero lor longer periods or if there were no wa'er and air. + Yet Ihese requirements are nol enough. II we fill carbon, oxygen, nitrogen , o,d water in a tes t tube. irradiate it with sun ligh., provide a convenien t temperature and keep poisonous material oul, th e re will still be no development of life. A living cell, e ven the mosl primi.ive, contains protein. The bOlic elemen" making up protein molecule, ore 21 space iournal �corban, hydro gen, oxygen, and nilrogen; but each protein molecule has a ve ry !o rg e num · ber of atoms. These otams are ononged in e dremely comp!ico ted but very ord e ,'y pot· te rns. Even though many diReren t pa tt erns of atoms moy be farmed ius t by random events in 0 mixture of those atoms in the course of time, it is improbable that the for· motion of 0 highly complex pralein molecule, ius l os a rando m even t, is completely negligi. ble, even ove r a time spon of million. of ye ars. A very special force il necessary to p ut the atoms in the righ t order, to arrange them in such a way that a pralein molecule resulls. Even so, would this complicated pro. tein molecule, immed iat ely a fter its formO lion be aliv e' Wo uld il show the charoderis tic fealu re. of life, Ihe metobo lism, the regula. lory proceues, the growth, the tendency 10 procreate, Ihe developm ent of protedive meOlures ond, mosl importanl of all an in· heren l Irend for evolution? These fealures which make live matter so charac leristicolly diR e rent from dead ma lt er, can they be unders tood at all on Ihe basis of th e lows of no lure as we know them from loday's physics and chemistry? Or do we have to assume a crea tive ad from for outside Ihe boundaries of our natural sciences? There is, I b elieve, only one answer which we Can give in han· e sty: we do not know. But this very question hal been with mankind as long as there hOI been scientific Iho ugh l. It will certa inly re· main not only the most intriguing question of all science, but also one of the mos t pro· found questions which can be asked by man. The physical sdences have given us 0 marvelous picture of the inorgan ic world, ex· tending out 10 the re mote galaxies of th e universe ond down into the su b microstruc· tures of the atomic nuclei. We understand the laws Ihat make Ihe sian move; we can design complicated machines which utilile the forces and interaclions of eledric phe· nomena; we have learned to move through the air, and beyond ii, with unbelievable speeds; ond we draw almosl limi ll eu power f rom the interior of Ih e a tom. Biology has been no leu successfu t in revealing the low, that underlie the world of animals and plants. 22 space journal The lows of physics and chem istry , correclly applied, ore valid also in the realm of o rg anic matter. And ye l the fundamental questiol1 which fa ces Ihe natural scientist is still unanswered: are the laws of physics and chem. istry, includi ng Ihou: still unknown, suffident to exp lain Ihe formation of living matter? All we can do is to continue our researches in to the mysteries of nature, even if this question should remain unanswered for a very long time. Scientists, indeed all of us, would be reluctan t 10 assume that our little plone l Earth is the on ly ploce in the vast universe on which li fe has developed. Allhough we do not know wha l causes a pro tein molecule to develop oul of its basic ingredienh and what makes it behove like a live protein molecule, we are confide!,1 Ihot noture iniliotes Ihis development whenever. and wherever, the conditions are right. This reasoning implies that lif..--even on Earlh-may have started in more thon one place, and more often than once. In fact, it is conceivoble thol molecules whic h poness th e charaderistic fea tures of life developed mony limes on Earth, and continue to develop today. It should be assumed, though, thot Ihe first phases of Ihis development, taking place in a single live protein molecule, may well toke millions and millions of yeors and thot such a molecule e;o:hibits Ihe feotures of life in such on inconlPicuous monner thot we may nol b ecome owore of ils exislence, even if we had il in our test tube. Earth owes its life-fovQring condi tions to ils atmosphere, its stare of water, and its proxim ity to Ih e Sun. The elements found on Eorth are the same os Ihose found on olher celestial bodies. This can be verified by on analysis of the light which reaches Earl h from other slars. The chemical compounds, however, ore quite different on slars and plone". While Ihe allIer regionl of Ihe Sun consis t mainly of hydrogen ond helium ond only Iroces of particularly hardy componen ts like cyonoge n, silicon fluoride, and tilonium dioxide, the crusl of Eor!h, and that of the plonels, is made up of a greot variety of chemical compounds. The relolive obundonce �of these compounds is very probably the some on the solar planets and in all likelihood, also on the planets of other $lars. This, however, is only true for the solid pori of the planets. Their atmospheres and their water conten t differ very widely. It is this difference and th eir distances from the heat· providing central star which mgkes some planets suilgb!e for life gnd e><cludes others very defin itely. The atmosphere o f Egrlh fulf,lI s g number of functions which are essential for the sup· port of life. It provides 0><Ygen for the gni· mgls and cgrbon dioxide for the plants. It emries rain to the remote st ploee~. It moderates the impact 01 the solar rays during the daytime, and it keeps Ihe surface of Egrlh '.om losing it. heat too quickly during the nighl. It shields the living being s Irom ul! rg violet and cosmic radiation , and it prolects Ihem ggainst Ihe countless meteorites which conslontly shower Egrlh . The animal organism, being constgnlly a t work in one way or gnother, need s a conlinuous supply of energy. 0><Ygen, with it. great gffinity to e><athermic reactions with many olher elements, is on ideal source of energy. Nature chose the slow combus tion of o xygen with other elements as the principal supply of energy for the bodies of animgl.. The luel which is burned with the oxygen of the a tmosphe re is normally some form of plant or gnimol life. It is well known that Ihe body of on animal could not subsist on the com· bUltion of soot or crude oil, allhough the amoun t of heat energy per gram 01 those fuels is much higher than Ihat of a gram 0 1 spinach. This fact indicates very clearly thol Ihe onimgl body does not only require calories for its subsistence, bu t also g specific kind of "molecular orderliness." This peculiar feature of onimgl organisms will be discussed some more in 0 fu lure article. The g tmgsphere gf Earth hgs not always been the sa me th roughout the several billion years of its exislence. In the beginning, Ihere was a great abundance of lighl goses, par· ticularly hydrogen, helium, methane, gmmonig, wat er vopor, an d neon. Ho wever, Ear th could no l retai n these gases while il was still very ho t. They gradua ll y drifted ou t into space, and we must onume that for some pe riod during its development Earth was wi thout on oppreciabJe atmosphere. To understand the reason why a planet cgn lose its atmosphere, we musl toke 0 loo k 01 the structure of our atmos p here in g e neral. 23 space journal �The molecule . 0 1 0 gos 0'., in con.lont mo tion) the ir ~e locities and di ll,<;: lions 0 ' " dis- They wer e ,.,Ieo.ed from Ihe crust o. it .Iowly solid,f, e d. Bul Ih., •., woo . Iill no o . ygen in Ihe I.i buled 01 'a"dom Und e r (a"di tio " , o f "0 •• mal le mpe.olure ond olmo.ph.,ric pr e ssure. oi., o"d if Ih."., ho d been, ,I would ho~" b.,e n co ns um e d ago; " in Ih ., o . ido tion p,oc.,,,e l one cubi c inc h of oi. co ntains about a hund red bill ion bi lli o " mo le cu le •. Eoch of Ihem collid e . wit h onol her on e a fte r 0 po lh of nOI mOre !ho" a hundre d Ihou.ondlh of on inch, ther e by changin g its ~ e l oc i ty and ils direction. The o ~e rog., ~eJociti e. of the mol., cules in (> gas dep e nd on Ihe temperolUfe: Th., holler th e go •. th e higher the o~eroge ve loci ty o f i" mo le cul e •. The meon molecul a r velocities of ~OI;oU' gose. ore listed in loble 1 for Iwo dIff er en T !emperolure •. Some o f the molecules will o lwoys be fo ster thor'! Ihe ove ro ge, olher. will b e Ilo wer. Th e distribU lion of Ih ei r ve. loc itie. follow. a so·co!led Mox wellion distri. bullon cu r~e . 0 1 Ihe ,ad . a nd mine. o ls. Ther e wa s . ome melhane and omm o nio, and Ihis o lmo.t chOOI,c The hei gh I of Ihe atmosphere .. not welt d"fined . It. d en.ity decreases can!;nuau.ly on Ihe way up, but even alan alti _ Iud., of 100 mil es we find .till almo st a billion mol e cule. in .,och cubic inch . Th e po th I.,ngth b.,lw.,., n two colli. ions. howe ~er , ha s increased 10 many thousand miles . If a t o n olli tude of a f.,w hun d.ed miles 0 molecu le happens 10 acqui re a po.licularly high ~elocily in a few lava.oble collisions, and if ils direction i. ,odiolly oulwo.d from Earth, it moy w.,11 o ve rcom e the grovity pull of Eorth ', field and e.cope into Ou ter .poce . The velocity needed fa. Ihi. e.cope i, independe"" of the mall o f Ihe mole<;:ule, bu t dep e nds on Ih., mOil ond Ih., diameler of the plonel. Some , horoc te.htic c Hape veloc ilie. are Ii.t ed in lob le II. Althou gh the av e.oge velaci tie. 01 go.es, .,ve n at highe r le mpero tures, are generally lowe' Iha" Ih e eHape velociti.,. of Eo .th a nd ol h er plo"els, there will always be moJ e cut.,. wha. e velocities, at one lime or onolher, a. e w fficiently high to mo ~e them escape from Ih ei. mother p lonel. In the COune of milli o n. of yeo .. , Ihi. g.oduol escape may w., 11 I.,od 10 a conside.oble rOr.,ficolion , an d eve n a lotol lon, o f a planetary olmo.phere. t" Ih., c o s., of Eorth, it did. II was only much lot e ., o fter fo. lh hod coo led dow", thaI a " ew otm05phe re developed . Corban dio xide, " 'trogen, and water vapor w.,re probobly Ih., main con. liIU.,,,,, of thi. n., w otmo. ph ere. 24 space journa l seH,ng woo probably Ihe backdrop On which Ihe fi.s ! live p lo t., in molecul e. we re fOlm.,d. How Ih is pouibly may have happened , or 01 least what we can co njeclur e today, will be describ e d in more d.,toil in Ihe ne d issue of SPACE Jou rna l. It may suffice hele to nOI., thot the f"st living organism . were probably 5mOU coogulolian. 0 1 proloplosma·like molte., copablill of .plitti ng carbon d ioxid e with the aid of sunligh1. Th e corban and a numb e r of chemical compounds incorporat ing corban wele retained in the orgon;.m, a nd thlll 0.Ygen wo. re leased. We. must assume Ihot Ihe 10101 amouni of oxygen found in ou r o!mosp hele today was produced by plonl o rgani sm • . Th,,'e would b., e v.,,, mOle o.ygen in the oi, today If the pia"", ofter Ihe i. d eolh and du.ing their decay. hod no l us e d up so much of it in a slo w o.idation p.Ocell which fin a lly r... uiled ago'n in corban dioxide. How.,ve •. Ihroughoul Ihe ag e s, muc h of Ihe organic moll". wa s buried deep in Ih e ground whe'e it was nOI "xpo~l!d to Ih., oxygen of thll! a t_ mo sp here. A consid.,rob le omouni of oxygen was Ihe.efo.e I.,ft j" Ihe at mosphe'II!, and huge re~e.voirl of cool ond oi l wer" bu ill up simulloneously in Ihe d.,eper layers 01 Eo.,h ·s crusi. It is very intere lting 10 nole that the total OmOu,,' of o xygen in the atmosphere would jusl about be suffi cie,,' 10 o xi dize the 1010i amount of cool and oil .till bu.ied under th e surface . A"imol life was able 10 d " "elop on eorln os .oon as Ihe oxygen supply wo. sufficienl for its support. The a nimal o.gon i. m depe nd, 10. its food .,nli'l!ly~e ilhe r d i.ectly Or ,,,di.eclly--on Ihe e.i.lenee of p lo"l lif., . But. Ihe production o f corban d io.ide by the a"i. moh is .uch a smoll contribUlion to Ihe lo.ge scale production by oxida tion of dead plonl o rga nisms tha t onimols could no l be conlid _ ered ellentiol lor Ihe e.islence of pia", Iile. II i. conc.,ivoble, the r.,fo.e . Iho l a plOn.,1 ��conloins vegetatio n and no animo!.; b ut it i~ not to be expected that there are pla nets populated by anim a ls and bore of any plontlike organis ms_ It is by no means certain, of course, wh ether life will always develop into a plant branch and on animal branch. Th ere are numerous spec ies of living organisms even on Ear lh which canno t be counted under one of the.e branches. Virus es, bacteria, and even some of th e protozoa, do not clearly belong to the plants or the animals . Some highly specialized paras ites wh ich live in the in lestines of other animals requ ire neit her oxygen nor corban dio xide nor light for their su bsistence; they liv e on sugar o r sto rch which they toke from th ei r immediate vicinity, and they produce energy not Irom ox idation, but from a process of fe rm en ta tion which is controlled by specia l enzymes. These parasites, of cou rse, depend on a live hall. It may be a ssumed with a high degree of certainty that if life develops at all, it will at first be in the lorm of plontlike organisms which consume corban dioxide and release oxygen, with the help 01 sunlight. Corban dioxide and sunlight afe th erefore mandatory for the development of life. Water, 100, is obsolu le ty essen lial, not only o. a source of hydrogen, b ul also as a solvenl, and a s a basis for the colloids whi ch form the bulk of the struc tural materials of plant cells. Mo st o f th e tramportotion of mate rials imid e a living organism, plan t or animal, is done by di ffusion or by osmotic processes; Ihis would be un thinkable without water. With its large specific heat, wate r is on ideal ther mostat which helps to equalize the te mpera ture wi lh_ in one organism and which protects the organism aga inst rapid changes in te mp eratu re. Jt i. true that life can exist for long periods of tim e without wat e r, as in dry spores or seed.. Howeve r, Ih is is a latent kind of life on ly, and no t the active development of living organisms. There are even mammals, like the little desert mouse, which never drink wate r dur ing their whole life; they syn lhesize it oul of carbohyd rates and oxygen. Even though they can live without taking water, Ihey procure it in on indirecl way, for Ihe 26 space journal seeds and o ther food which they eat could never develop without on adequate supply of water. Life c an on ly d e velop, and su bsist, when the ambien t lemperolure is favorable . The lower limi t of the temperature range suitable for life is nol only det ermined by the freezing of the liquids within the organism, bul also by Ihe rates of chemical and physio logical reoc lions which, as a rule, d e pend very sensilivel y on the temperalure. It is true that a living body can dev elop and mainloin a temperature cons iderably higher Ihon that o f the surroun dings, but th e temperatu re gradien ts within the oute r layers ollhe body ca n not be too grea t. Fur ther more, octive tem perature control i. a rerlflemen l tha i is och ieved by on organism on ly 0 long time after it has de veloped the basic feotures of life. We ma y safely assume, therefore , tha t life deve lops only in regions where the temperature does nOI d,op below Ihe freezing poin t of waler solu tions. The high -tempero lure limit is set by the stabili ty of large orgonic molecules. Any molecule can be broken up if the temperotufe i, roised high enough . The large molecules wh ich are found in living moiler decompose fairly easily, mony of Ihem even below Ihe boiling point of water. Most live o r. gonisms can be killed by boiling them in woter. Some algae are known to live, and even thrive, in hot springs, but Ih ese orgonisms are highly specioliled and cerloinly dona l rep re sent on Ori9i<101 developmen t. " should be assumed that on environment which allows temperatu res belo w obout- 20 C 1_ 4 F) and above 80 C 1176 F) is not suited for the development 0 1 life. + Wilh these restrict ing conditions in mind, we wiIJ now proceed 10 look 01 the solor planets o s (I Iyp ko l planetary system, and we wiJl (ls k wh kh of them migh t be co pable of bearing life. �• TABLE 1 TABLE II MEAN THERMAL VElOCITIES Of ATOMS AND MOLECULES ESCAPE VELOCITIES AT SURFACES OF PLANETS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES Milse.: o 2400 C Q Moo, Mercury Venus ,.. 3.4 m; lee Hydrogen 1.15 mi, lte Helium 0.82 Water Vapor 0.38 1.1 Nittagen 0 .31 0 .• Oxygen 0 .29 0 .86 Corbon Dioxide 0.25 0.74 1.5 ' .6 6.4 7 .0 3.1 37.0 Ear th Mars Jupit er 22 .0 13.0 Saturn Uranus 14 .0 6.5 N eptune Pluto TABLE III CHARACTERISTIC DATA OF PLANETS H ' JlU l .loo O. ~ 7.100 0 .9 10 .. 000 ......, 0 .74 ~ . U ",M, 1 CI " "T I U 'M, 1 .....\." " . ,. O. , . . ,, " u .". Of UT IMllIlI I IIIIU U ' .... I V. . . ." . 0 ' UU 1,,· . .U1UTI) O.J I ,~ . l,rOS .1S 17.96 35 .9 It.1 0.117 0.1' 110' 71' .23 n~ . 70 61.1 21.1 140 ' '3.94 365.15 92.9 '1.5 13.0 ' .000 ..., . ,1 15 0.15\ 0.101 .n 24.61 686.91 14 l.S 1.312.000 O.H )1..,50 2.64 . ]00' 9.11 4,33 2.60 ~ .U SATURN 73,100 763.000 O. ll 93 .210 1.1 7 .140' 10.03 10)'39.53 816.2 U~NUS 31.000 59 .000 1.03 . 270' 10.75 30.616.'- 1,71l.' U3 ·330' 15.10 60.1 .... 2 2.793 ,5 . 370 ' 155.61 90. 471.33 3.676.0 6S4.D-I 27.32 0 .7 1 ~ . )] 14.510 17 ,)60 .... 0.700 '''''''' 72.000 '.m .. 0.29 ~ 0.96 2.160 0.010 0.011 ..'" 0.16·0.20 . 240 ' "DISTANCE flOM fAITH. ~ "-~ 0",'''\ 'llOCln 1· llll/ lI Q 0,054 11.640 NOON < (MIIU . " 'I JUPITfi PLUTO o ," l .nT 010111. lOU." ",. NfPT UN( £ VOIU.,' ""H,, VENUS ~" -g (. l lIl) Mucu n EArTH • II . .. " . . . 24 " ••• ••• .., ,. ,.. 0.6' �oboul 400 ~ C (750 oFI. Th e " night" sid e, which i, permonenlly in the shado w, is (!l( . tremely col d . There is a v ery brood twilight lone between the hot Clnd the cold region~ becouse of ongulor oscillolionl of .he plonet; in Ihi, l one, the lem pe ra lure VOriel widely up ond down du ,i ng the Me rcuri o n yeCir. If Ih ere is any olmol ph ere On Mercu ry- and the re are op tical o b lervotions which imply Ihol the re is some_its press ure is not grea ter Ihon obo u. I 800 of thai On Eo.th. Mercury is simply '00 small, and 100 halon its sunny side, to reloin On appreciable omount of go~ as On atmosphere. II;s probably mountain. OUS, b ul travellers 10 Mercury will find no th ing e xce pt "0 lifelen, desolole world , with a sur. fa ce parched and crocked" (Polrick Moore). The ClmClun! Clf sClICI, ene'gy ..... hich is reo ce;ved by a given ClreCi i. inversely prClpCl" tiCinCl! tCi the squClre Clf th e distance belween this oreo and the Sun. Mercury, for example, WhOle meCin distance from the Sun is only about one·third that of Earth, receive~ almost nine lime1 01 much ,olor energy per unit area 01 Earth. Solurn receives almOSI a hundred limel less. There is only a limiled region around th e Sun, and around eCich fjlted I:ar, within wh ich a planet receiVel Ihe righl omounl of sol(lr radialion to mah life possible. If a planet wilhin Ihis region has aboul the right magnitude, il could have developed an 01. mOlphere which conloin1 at leoll waler vapo r and some olher gosel like nilrogen and car b on dioltide. Thi, almosphere in turn would equalize Ihe temperature sufficiently so that On environment favorable for Ihe de . velopmelll o f life would result. H. Strughold ho s named this fovorable region around a fol(ed Itor Ihe "ecosphere." Our Earth happells to be righl in th e middle of the SllIl 'S eco. sphere. Venus i, at il. inner, Mars Cit ih outer margin. Mercury, our .mallesl plonet, hee table IIIl is unluitoble for life. It hOI the peculior feolure of alwoys lurning the some face la'Nord Ihe $1.11'1, very much like the Ma:lll olway, look. towo rd Eorlh with the some .ide. The bright ,ide of Mercu ry , hClvillg elernal doy, is heal ed up to a surface temperalure of Venus, one of .he mo.1 beautiful sigh ls in the evening or morning .ky, ho~ been veiled in my.lery as long 01 Oslronomers have lurned Iheir telescopes lo word it. A dense Olmos. phere, opaque 10 o p tical observation, covers the enlire planet. It is not knowll whol this opaque gas layer comi. 11 of, bu. it il prob. oble Iho l it con tai ns corba n dioxide, and pos. si b ly large cloud. of du.t. Bul what does i. hide? Since no water "Clpor Can be detected in Ihe ouler toyers of the olmo.phere of Ven",s, il W05 onumed in ' he po,t that Venus is on entir ely dry and deserl . ti~e plon el, wh ipp ed by terrir,c storms ond shrouded b y a per. mon en t layer of dUll clouds. W hipple and Me nze l recen tly sugges led tho l Ihe en tire sur. face of Vf!nUS may be one lorge ocean of wOler. In Ihis COle, it is not impossible Ihot Ihere i, some kind of aquati c life on Venul. Th e temperolure of the wa te r would be high, bul il would be below the boiling poinl. There is only little hope Ihol we will learn much more oboul Ihe surface o f Venus un til Our first inlerplonetory spaceshi p circles th e plonel and ~ends lounding rockels through ils 01. mosphe ric blonkel. �I The Moon is on entirely inhospitable ploce . Although it receives the some solar energy per uni t time ond area as Earth, there i. cer. toinly no life on th e luna r surface. The lemp e rature on the sunlil side goes up 10 about 120 C (250 ° F), " ] n Ihe shado w, it drop. quidly down to - 150 C ! - 2 4 0 ° F). There is no a tmosphere which could equali ze these large tempera""e diffe rences. Even il Ihere hod been some go.es d uring its early development phases, the Moon would have lost them very rapidly because 01 ils smoll size . There might be minute troce~ o f very heavy go.es like krypton or l( e rrOn, but their existence would be insignificant for the develop_ ment of life. Mars is always named first when life on other planets is discussed. Its surface ca n· d itions are more like terrestrial con ditions than thc.e of any other known planet. Speculations about the forms of Martian li fe have been numerous and fontc.tic, and Ihere is almost no limi t to the weirdness of Ihe Martian monsters which have been conjectured by in_ ventive minds . Aslrobio logis ts are now more coutious_ They do not el(pect more than some modest, bu t very resistant forms of p lant life, such as we find on Earth in the dry and rocky areas of the for north. The green po lches which can be seen on Ihe Ma rti an 'urfoce, togelhe r with the rela tively low tem peratures 20 C 68 f) during the day, but orlly - 70 C !- 94 F) during the nigh t according to G, de Vaueouleurs and G. P. Kuiper) imply a possible "egetotian simila r to mosses or lichens. The a tmospheric densi ty on Mars is only one-Ienth o f that on Earth, It conlains ni tragen and carbon dioxide, but + !+ olmost no oxygen. The waler content of Ihe Martian atmosphe re is only 0 few percent of Ihe mois ture in the atmosphe re a bove terrestrial deserts. Animol life similar to that on Eorlh would no l be poss ible. A very interesl_ ing suggeslion hos been mode by H. SI.ughold: it is possib le thaI planh on Mars store the oxygen resulting from their metabo lism within Iheir tissues. thereby build ing up a ki nd of "i nternal otmosphere. " Plant types dif ferenl from ours co uld Ihus deve lop, and e"en specioli~ed forms o f animal life, drawing oxygen direclly from the plant., would not be u!lerly impossible. However, condilions for life are not overwhelming on Mars. As H_ SIrughold put iI, Mars hos a lways been, and will alwoys be, on "underdeveloped p lane t," os for as life is concerned. It is iust a lilt le too fo r owoy fiom the Sun. The greolest di, tonce from the Sun is even much more significant lor the rest of the plonets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep tune are large enough to reloin even the lightest gos, hydrogen, in their atmosphere., However, their surface tempera ture, are so extremely low hee lable Ill) thaI none of Ihe proo".ses whi ch are essentia l lor the development of life could possibly toke pla ce. The mean densi ti e s of these lour large planet. are surprisingly low; the logical explanation is tha I cons iderable portions of their observed sizes are made up by otmowheres of great depth. The wa ter, which exists unquestionably in grea t quanti ties on theoe plonets, must be frOlen. In fact, it is assumed today that each of Ihe four 2. space journal �on one o f Ih e fo ur ma jor plonels. The le mperotures are for too low; Iher e is no gaseous o~ygen or carbon diox ide; Ihere i, no liquid wo le r; Ihe re is o n abundo nce o f the poisonous goses ammonio o nd me thone. Their surfaces ore deserls of frO l e n goses, hos tile 10 any p ossible form of li fe . It is liard 10 imogine how fulur e space Irove lers could ever sel fool on one of Ihele plonets. They will only orbil oround Ihem ot respec toble dis tonces, sending the ir unmon ne d sou nding p robes do wn inlO these oceons of hydrogen, helillm, me thone, and ommonio. The rocky co.e of these plonets will p rob ob ly never b e oc cessible to mono mojor plonels hos a rocky core which is covered by a la yer of ice severol thousond miles thick; Iheir otmospheres above Ihe ke cooling olso hove depths of several thou sand miles. These figures ore implied by Ihe low den.ities, Ihe observed diomelers, ond the very pronounced i10tten ing of Ihe plonels. The o lmospherk pre llure ot Ihe .urfoce of Jupiler is oboul 0 million limes greoter Ilion Ille o lmospherk p rellure ot Ihe surfoce of Eorth . Even 01 much lower prellures, all gases are liqllid or solid, or ot least 1I0ve densilies equol 10 their densilies in Ihe liquid or solid slote. Tile term '·o lmospllere" is therefore misleading; only Ihe Olliermosl few hundred miles of Ihe '· otmosphere" of Ihese ploner. can be e~pec l ed to be goseOUI . Again judging from Ihe observed densities. il mUll be ollumed thaI Ihese ou ler loyers conlisl of hydrogen or helium. Jllpi ter ond Sotum con . loin, in oddition, foidy lorge quontities of goseous om mania. All fOllr planels ore rkh in galeolll methane. Most of Ihe ommonia, however, is frolen; Ihe some is true for corbon dio ~ ide , which should nol be e~peCled in gaseous form. No ga'eous nitrogen or o~ygen shollid be e~pected ei ther. We need no l hope 10 find ony Iroces 01 life Utile is known about Ihe losl and remotest plonet, Pluto. II i. too for ow o y for meoning. ful, direct obSe rvo lions. But even wilhout knowing too much obout ils surfoce conditions, the possibility of life con be excluded becouse of the edremely low surfoce tempera. lure •. Among the nin e planets of the Sun, there are Ihree whose orbits are within the eco sphere; but o ... ly anI! 01 Ihl!m, Ea rth, e xhibi ls such a lovoroble combinotion of properties Ihol life could deve lop on 0 grond scole. Venus may bear some aquo tic IOfe; Mars very probobly corries low forms of vegetation. How long will Eorlh continue to oRer these fovorable co ... ditions? Wilhin the ned billion. of yeors, Ihe Sun will heat up ond expand and eventually will exle ... d its white hoi 01· mosphere beyond the planetary orbit of Earlh . Bul long before Ihot time, Eorth will hove lost mOre and more of its atmosphere. Within the next several million yeors, the atmosphere will groduatiy dri ft owoy in lO outer spoce. W hen Ihe gaseous oxyge ... and corban dio~ide are significontly rorefie d, animol and plont life in its prese nt form will no lo nger b e ponible . Will life by then have developed into form s which con subsist under Ihe cha ... ged conditions? Will rna ... have found o lher ways to prevenl the gradual decli ne of fovoroble living conditions? Will he change his Earth, long be fore noture does, in to 0 ploce whicll is no longer a ... inviting obode fo r life? Alrer 011, the history of homo :lop;ens covers only some Ie ... thousand years, ond homo sapiens lechnic,",s has been a t work lor only 0 lew hllndred years. 30 space journal - . �I S P AtE CHALLE N GE I Ihe ac i d lesl By W e rnher von Br alln I W e .fth • • ¥ .. ~ I ... ,, ~ .. ~I bo," "" "'.,,~ 21, 1912, ;. W;,,'l<. G.< .. o.y. H• • , •• "'" hll . ! tho i. I9J~ I, , .... "..1 •• • , ]1)0 he ioi .... " . - U."."", 01 '","" ""'''''.'_ ,. a.ni" ' ''_ ... ".,,"" Obo". _ ."'''''' hi .. I• •_ ........ ,. r' .......... 0 . ... ', _" • • _1· ,I.. old ,_, _ ......... ..... ","",.1 _to ..... 0 1' ..... .t tho '''.;d f ... ' '''' ' ' _d c. • . Mi".", c;.. ... at , _. . . . . . . h ... 1937 ••• ,' 'ho ... d W",'d w",,, '100 V.l was 010 •• 10..-1 •• ' _ ' ' ' _. . . .d ,h. ~,,' ,." .... 1.1 V., .... ,• •• <'-1 i. 1Ul. 0.. ",. 1< ••• tho ." "U.......... 1956. H. I......"od and o' ,0<." ..... _ • •• ' .....,".1 01,_<,., .' i.,. A..., ......,,', II,.. ,w. ""........ II;, ".bll,.,,"., '.,'.d. T" _ ... . ""''''. A".u ,1M f."I S-. ''''''''''. C_ .." c! ~_ ••• d Tho ......... '" _._ 1 The add le$t of men and notions ;$ Ihe measure of their cou roge and resovn:;efulness in rhe face of adver sity and peril. Th o se whic h have survived crises have ellerted Ihe masl pro foun d influences upon mankind's destiny. Those which fo iled did so because Ih ey could no l manage abundan ce and pow e r, Ou r count.y ha l faced agonizing tests more than once during ils relatively short history, It emerged each time from the crucible nol wi lhou t scars but with greater confIdence and riche r maturity. America survived crises be· co use il knew what must be done and did it wilhout regard 10 consequenc es, wilh faith in its own judgment and in the resources which hod to be marshalled for the common good. Eve n now we are ellper ienci ng another test. Hi storians may record it a s one of the mo st fateful in te rval s of Ihe twentieth c entury which hgs certainly hod more than its sho re of his toric events, The early days of October 1957 mgrked g turning point in our desliny and that of o ther notions , large and small, An unp recedented te chnological achievemen t suddenly Irons form ed a troubled bu l familiar world into one of strange and foreboding aspect. As it has, since Ih e down of the In_ dust rial Revo lution, scie nce had influenced his lory, and directly shaped the lives of men, The reaction 10 these events ha s been pro· fo und. They tr iggered a perio d of se lf· ap · pr g isal rarely equalled in modern times. Ove rnig hl it became popular to question Ihe b ul wark s of our society: our public e du cat ional sys tem , our induslrial slrength, int ernationa l policy, defense "rotegy and fo rces, Ihe ca po · bililies of ou r sden<;e gnd technology. Even the moral fiber o f Our people came under seo. ching ellom inal ion. Since Ihe evident Ihregl was to our securi ty, the inilia l preoccupal ion concerned modern wegpons systems and means of defending a gg insl them, The Domaclegn swo rd menacing fre e pegple can· sis ted of a mOn! lrous destru ctive force inherent in gutomgtic delivery systems, cgpable of tmnsporling therma· nuclea r wgrhead s over thousands of miles, in gny weather, acrOSS a ll geographic and political barrie", gl velociti e s of such magni lude as to imply lo tgl deslruction wilhaul advan ce warning. The logical process of evglualing our position has been underway ever since: first, to determine if we possessed the se weapons, and whol mean! of defense could be erected . Aclions have b ee n taken by Ihe Defense De· portmenl, lully supported by the Congreu, aimed 01 achieving operational copabilities with Ihe intermediate and intercontinental bgl. listie mi.,iles 01 the egrliesl practicable da te. Perhaps it is time now, wilhoul mudd yi ng the waters further , to determine whether we have correctly a ssessed the lotol threat represented by a totalitar ian reg ime, whose e nd objecti ve is world dgmination. The Sgviet challenge is by no means reo silicted Ig mili tary technology. It goes for beyond the realms of pglitics and armies. No longer i. Ihe task of coping with the Red menace th e eulusive responsibility of generals 31 space iournal �and statesmen. The acid te:;t mvalves every facet of au. civilization. every part 01 au' society: religion, economics, politics, science, technology, industry and educa tion. Free men everywhere have been cought up in this g.im compe tition. We who eniay au. home., drive the family co •• 5pend mo.e tim e in leisure and less in wo.k, and pay less attention to notionol affairs than to television shows. are faced with a decision-will we do whatever i. necessary to win this struggle. or will we continue in Our (omlortoble illusion and thus court the risk 01 a defeot which would forever e limina te freedom, and pla(e Our chil d ren a"d their chi ldren under the (antral of on all-powerful sto te? What we are about to discover is whether a notion, which has rated its home 'un sluggers and its fullbacks above its scientists ond philosophers. can meet the totol competition 01 aggressive communism, ond still preserve ill way of li fe . It will not be enough to perlect weopon s sys tems which hove a t least equal capability with tho.e of a potentiol aggressor. USA The SO.i.I·Union cOn· ",burer opp'O"mol_ Iy .0% of it, 10101 p.odu~ 'i o" 10 Indi.id· _n", uol ,."ui'e.. in compo,i.on 10 77% cOtliribut'" in Ihe United Stat ••. USSR '0' "A.l ...... O ....... U 32 space journal Others have pointed out thaI :he deterrent effect of these machines of war may cancel the possibility of total conflict. It has been orgued thot this will turn aggression into onother direc ti on: that is, to the perimeter or brush·type wor, in which the huge radets 01 grea t range ond man dest ruc tiv e capability would nat be employed. Agoinst this estimate, the Army has reshaped ih striking forces ond equipped them with battlefield rockets and guided missiles. Th e urgent need of an odequote defense posture capable of deol ing wi th any type emergency has met a rare degree o f unanimity here and abroad. In ,harp contrast, however, wide di sagree. ment hal developed over the real significance of the best-publicized exploit of Communist engineering-the Earth circling Hltelli tes whose monotonous signal. were intentionally audible to lil teners everywhere on Eorth. Skeptic s, who reluse to occep l the possible un til it hOI been demon stra ted, have clouded the issue. This il a dangerOUI slole 01 mind in a day when breokthroughl occur so rapidly thaI obsolescence of (ample .. weapons systems has became a p.imory concern. �STUDENTS IN UNIVERSITIES AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS , Perhaps the launching of Ihe Explorers helped to redeem our promises, hul no omounl of explanation or justifIcation can show why we did not do il ahead of Ihe Soviets-and no amount of mutual backslapping tllat we succeeded with Explorer on the first try can hide the fact that we lIave lost a round. We cannot afford to lose much mare. It was a grave error in judgment to foil to recognize the tremendous psychological impact of on omnipresent, artifidal moon visible to anyone with a goad pair of eyes and audible 10 anyone witll a simple radio receiver. Anotller grove error was the failure to evaluale realistically the research, development, engineering and production capabilities of a total it arian state. Th is lulled us into <;om· plo<;ency and led 10 on underestimate of our adversary-risky husinen in any competition. Since I hod the dubious privilege of living and working under a totalitarian government for many years, I sllould be able 10 discuss this lapic with same degree of compelence. Anyone who says that sdence and technology cannot flourilh in a police Itate dael himlelf and his coun try a great dinervice. It is generally recognized, of course, thai personal freedom of movemenl and thought, and a free exchange of ideas, are essential to scientifIC advance. From this, however, many erroneoully conclude thai genuine scientific work is impossi ble in the climate of dic tatorship. l et me clea r up this nation once and for all, in the interest of arriving at on hon est appraisal of our situation, by ciling my personal ellperience at the Peenemuende Rocket Center in Hiller's Germany. Neither I nor any of my associates were ever required 10 submit a travel itinerary in advance, whether for a short business trip or a va<;atian lalting several week, . Throughout the war we hod intimate, continuous contact with 36 universi ties and technical institu tions. They performed research in support of our missile programs under contracts so broadly worded that they permitted the institutions on e_tremely wide latitude in implementation. Discussions and symposia, quile similar to those conducted in this country, were held IrequenUy. Many idem were generated in this truly liberal academic environment. True, these ideas related uclusively to our technical concerns and not 10 politiu, but they are succen· fully applied even today in roc:ket and minile activities. As for as personal freedom of movemenl is concerned, as well as free e_· change of ideas in the strictly scientific and technological sphere, it would thus simply be misleading to assume that things were much different Ihan in a free country. The heavy hand of dic tatorship is rather felt in another area. In Peenemuende, the securi ty police kept dossiers on all of us, lisling all the things we might have said about fhe regime or individuals of the upper hie r- 3l space journal �archy. Personal vices and weaknesses were catalogued in Ihe ir nre s. Bu t th ey left us a lone as la ng as our useful ne n, in their opinion, was greate r Ihan our debil occa'IIII. Once th ey fell they could do wit houl you and you were in their way, they·d call for the douier and destroy you. It was Ih at simple. I realize that this sounds quite awful to men who hav e never experienced it. But the sober fact is th a t peop le, whether scienti sts or candlemakers, learn to live with such a situa lion. We dan', deny ourselves week· end auto trips in spile of the National Salety Caun· c il's warnings ab ou t multiple deaths. Jusl so th e man living unde r dict atorship adj" sls himself to business·as-usual, whether he likes it or not, because he mus l in order 10 survive. Something like seven hund red million people are living to day under Communist rule and, in all probability, they have learned to live in the face of such ponible " road accidents : Consequently, we sh o uld disabuse oUrlelves of Ihe dangerous myth that the impo tent Ru s· sian scienti st bends aver his slide rule with a gun pointed 01 his he ad _ It appears tha t he enjoys at le a st as much reward as Ihe Ame rican scienlist and that, until quite recenlly, he had even greater lotit"d e in hi s selection o f ' eso"rces and assistance. W e m"st consider, in th is measure of the forc es arrayed aga inst us, the overall postwar era in s"ch areas as a tomic and thermo· nuclear bombs, n ucle ar power plants, jet air· craft, g"ided antiaircraft missiles and long. range rock ets. W he n we cons ider their low general technologi cal slat",. 0 1 evid e nced d"ring the lost war, pl"s Ihe Iremenda"s physical damage inflicted "pan the Soviet ind"stry by the war itself, it becomes frightening ly clear that their rate 01 progreu grea tly exceeds 0,,($. Th e reaL periL lies in the eno rmo us momentum they have b"ilt up, which ce rt a inly will yield other dramatic by-prod"cts along the way _ They hove long .ince emb arked "pan a dynamic program 10 a c hi e ve supre macy in science and technology. Their state-controlled educalianal system is turn ing 01,11 competent engineers and scienti", in greater numbers than ours. It is upo n thil broad founda tio n thai the Russian is waging his eRort and no t l 14 space jou rnal upo n the gleanings of Ihe brain-picking 01 lome ca ptive, for ei gn scientists a s many people in this country sti ll see m to believe. Clearly we must accelerale our eRort at a rate c al culoted to overtake and surpass Ihe Ru uian advantage. And this ca lls for a sacrillce 01 an unpreceden ted scale. It must be understood also that th e Soviets have grasped the significance of man ', imminent conquest 01 space a nd have proceeded well along the road in tha t d irect ion. A cu rrent estimate 01 the situation would include thele possibilities. First to launch their satellites, the RUliions probably used a multi -stage rodet whi c h was originany designed 10 carry a thermonuclear warhead over intercon tinental range_ Second, the same racket conf,gura ti cn, wilh minor modif'ca tions, can place a payload of be tw ee n 50 and 100 pounds on the mo on. Third , Ihe rocket can a lso p ut up a ,atellite capable of military reconnaissance, equipped wi th (I television playback fea lure. A few su ch orbi Tal devi ces can keep trac k o f the progress of all surface co nstruction projects, ship movem ents, and air bale operations anywh ere in the world. O nce th ey a chieve this , and I am convi nced tha t it is only very few years oR, "open s. ie.·· i".pection for purposes of disarmament becomes academic_ Fourth, the Runia". have a sound program desi gned to solve the question of safe return from orbital flight and rela ted space medical problems, wit h Ihe purpo.e of preparing lor manned space travel. I would recomm end thai we brace ourselves for o ther Soviet ··forsts" in the new field 0 1 astronautics. We are behind and we canno t catch up in a day or two, since major technological projects necessarily involve lead time. I! will require several years o f conce ntra ted ef. fo rt for us to come abreast, and even longe r to pu ll ahead . We c a n waste no lime commiserating over the sorry lot of the Russian worker or peasant, compori ng hi, lac ~ of freedom and creature comforts with ou r prosperity. We should also "shuck oR " another illusion, that the Runio" people wi ll ri se "p to overlh row Ihe Kremli n and thus re li e ve ul of a ll our worries. Perha ps a dream 01 freedom ex ists in Ihe Soviel Union. �Pe.hops, by e~pOling mo.e young people 10 scientific t.oining , a seo.c h for trulh will be generoted .... hich will eventually rea ch against the dic tatorsh ip. But .... e ca nnot stand oround, hands in pockeh, waiting for othen 10 do whol can only be o ccompli.hed by us. I am co nvin ced Iho t i' i. ma n ', des tiny to enter space and tha t he .... ho con trols Ihe open ' pace around us is in 0 position to control the Earth . The only choice le ft U' i, 10 oc- Our educa ti ona l o Rering s mus t come und " r sc.u tin y since i, is tomorrow·, generation .... hieh .... ill ha ve to cope with the p rob le ms develop· ing today . If their pHlpmotion is to be compg lib le with the kind o f world they will inhobil, Our young people mus t be taught bo.ie a nd """nligl knowle dg e 01 the earliest practicable gge_ in the e lementary schools. We have teoehen we need, who con provid e Ihe in_ got to disabuse ours elves of Ihe ideo tha t cep! the Sov ie t challenge Or ·· poy Ihe piper: · "hool i. a pla ce sol e ly to teach boy s and g itis I certainly do no l suggest Ihol we move in to 'pace with any belligerent inlenlions. It how to live togelher. Th ey must underlNlnd mothemotics a nd the physical sciences, whieh would only be cOMillenl .... ith the fundamentals for whidl the United Sta tes stand, if we wo uld means more and beller te ochen and e x- propose to the Un ite d Notions the universal p and ed oRerings both in scope and num be r. BeHer ,olories, improved profenionol status, acceptance of Ihe pr in ciple of the freedom of outer spa ce- in analogy with the p rinciple and more adequate cfouroom and laboratory fa cil it ies are eueoliol 10 obtain the kind of of the freedom of the seas. spirotionol leaders hip to interell you ng minds in facts . But any such doc trine would be void and meoningless if we connol bock it up wi lh a position of relo live strength . tt hos been soid that with the Sputnik Khruschev ond Compony launched thei r eve ntual downfall becouse this country reacted by firing up its missle and space programs. And indeed, in more than one aspect thi s may be our losl chon ce . In th e first World War, as well as after Peart Harbor, the United States hod time to marshal her resources. Even in Korea and now, ofler Sputnik, we hod tim e 10 in itiote the nocessory coun teract ion. Nul time, in this world of long · rongo bollidic missi ' e. gnd thermonuclegr wgrhegd, Wl' mgy not have time. Ei the r we ""ill b e ready ot 0 moment·s notice, Of h"to ri gm moy conclude oyer Ihe ruins of au. cilies that we were '·weig hed and found wonling: · I hope that we will not conclude thgl money a lone .... ill turn 011 the tricks-there are oth"r foctors involved whieh cannot be .ellied so eosify. It would b e presumpluous for me 10 oRer "school solutions," Or even to tisl all Ihe Ihings which must be considered. But th"re a re some minimum requi rements which can be identified and whieh demand prompt oelion. do not believe Ihe Federal government wiU or should ollempl to dictate ,uch 0 program, but it should establish g e: nerolfy recogni zed educational standard, and it should ouis l in a pump·priming role in the pu b lic .schools and in -our col!ege, and universi ti es. Educa ljon in 0 democracy is Ihe concern of every ci lizen . The p eople must insis l upon a redirection o f emphasis and wi ll ingly o cce pt their jut! meaSure o f responsibility for e~ecu ­ tion of our educationat prog rams. To aU who ask, " W hat can I do 10 help?"·, my an sw er is to loke a ctive inleres t in whot is being tough l, how it is being taugh t, and by w/'om. There hal been unn ecessary concern aboul possib le Federal in terfe.ence in local schools The Federal government as well o. Ihe I tole. have be"n .uppo.ting public education in grea te . Or lesser degree for years-all we are talking oboul is funneling 'uppor l into more productIve chon nels . If Ihe Fede .gl governm"nl can 'upport high".ay proiect., why not schools? Finolly, we must generate the wjff 10 supremacy. Because Ihis is intangible-because il mu.t come from the hearts and mind, of our people, it canno t be legislated, budgeted or evoked by decree. We wont no Federal 35 spa ce journal �and hone st report ing , the hallmark of Ameri_ can journalism, which is sometimes lost sight of by a smo ll segment of the press bound to corry ou t propagonda attacks Or soles Com· paig n s by self-se rving interes ts. If we can inspire a notiona l determina tion to achieve the ultimate victory, all other foe· to" will foil into thei r proper peflpective and places. We will then move forward, a united people, in to on age in which the fo r reaches of the universe will b ecome as familiar as the ne xt town. propogondo mochine exercising dominion over the free pre n. We wont no d icto tor telling us what ' 0 believe ond who. '0 do. But we must set about learning the foch and , when we have ynde"'ood them , buckle down to the chollenging tosks whith conlront us. We should stop telling the world what we are ogoinst. We should tell the world whot we Ore lor. We must not fight the communist ideology wit h negative stotements, but with the lofty ideals of the founders of this greot republic. The ontidote to communism is not onticomm unism, but the be lief in God and the dignity of the individual. let us not deceive ourselves; the communist ideology hos powerful appeal to th e hove· nots. the uninformed , ond the desperote. Bu t ideos are fought no t with ma teri al means, but with superio r ideal. And where should these ideas be lound in this world todoy, if they cannot be found in this g lorious land of the free~ The flog of leoderhip of the free wo rld hos been thrust in to .he honds of Americans. Let us live up to the historical challenge. ° We must think in te rms of long· range objectives, not on the tim e scole of ned year 's automobile models, We must put our trust in men au igned to corry out these program ., and not in terrupt or divert them by frequent reexomination s Or demands for justificotions. We must supp ly them with the resources they require, hold them responsible lor resulh, and leove them alone to corry out their missions. We my!t look for, and demond , comp e tent 36 space jou rnal II is disquie ting to be asked "Bu t what will a ll this prof,t us?" Such ques tions be tra y a lock of conf,dence and, even mor e .erious, the kind o f unenlightened opp roach wh ich has hamstrung our progress in the past. No man can soy wilh onuron ce, what benefits will occrue from our discoveries. With Ex· plorer I, we mode 0 modes t beginning. WI!!. have stepped inlo a new, high rood from which there can bl!!. no turning bock. As wI!!. probe farther into Ihe area beyond our le,,,i· ble atmosphe re, man will learn more about his environment; hI!!. will understand beller the order and beauty of creotion. He may then come to realize thot war , as we know it, will avail him nothing byt colostrophe. He may grosp the truth that there is something much bigger thon his one lillie world . Before the majedy of what he will find out there, he must stand in reverential owe. This, then, is the acid test as man moves in to the unknown. �I S PACE PREVIEW books recent and f ort hcoming R e view e d By R a l ph E. J enn H o ffm a n M. Ho fl ... ~n . ' . ney, G . h"od"p",G. by h,.'h, ..... boo' ... <><;.,. d w'", " 0 ,.'dod ~;,,;;. " ., 'G" " . ", l hl ..... . ... hGntl .. .. d , . >.', t H" G, ,« h"m' ,..j;'.' I., ,... o.d. """, •• - ••' .... " . Q.d Do,.'.p ~ ~, h 0'"<0 h, •• I. H. " • ".lI. , Gf " 'do . ..,odo. ", Q.d •• of ..... 2 ~ "",,"<--fi.,;o., b' ••• ap", " . " ', 0 • • o' ' .. of ' ... Now y .. l T;,.., 'ool h " o " fo , ' ' ' ' ' ' ,ho. "".".G' ••".... H..... ..... ".ft '"0' '' ,0'''' •• d ,••d,." • " ••,." •• ",.. " hi,• ... 'o w, ""oo! ........ """ ~ ,. Exploring the Oistonl Siors. By Clyde B. Clmon. 384 page.. New York: G. P. Putnam 's Som. $ 5. The Nexl Fifty Billion Years. An Astronomer 's Glimp.e into Ihe Fu tu(e. By Kenneth Heuer. 144 pogeo. Illu strated by Chesley Boneslell. New York: Viking Press. $3. It is a we kame coin cidence that the'e two \lolumes ,hould rea ch the re\liewer'. des k o n the some day. Mr. Clo.on's popularized treoli5e on oslronomy covers Ihol sc ience from Ari stotle and Hipparchus 10 Fred Hoyle o nd \loults Ihe heavens ond the cosmo!i-the lerrible emptiness 0/ spo ce, in Clason 's op t phrase -from our neighbor Luna , leu than a quarte r- million miles away to dim galaxies thaI are me(ely dreamed of as exi.ling beyond Ihe 200-billion light·yeo( range 01 Ihe Polamo( two_hund(ed · in ch telescope or the even longer range of Ihe radio in,truments which e~plore "the \lision of the world and all the wonder that would be." Mr. Heue ( limits his disc ussion to our own insignificant little globe and the possibleno l Ihe probable!-circumslances under which it might end it5 currently four.billion year old e~istence. Mr. Clason 's book-if the opinion of a ve ry nonprofessional ast ronomer is accep table I1 9S Bi r ney Raym o nd - tokes in too much territory. The chapters on the constellations and on the stO(S, galactic and e~trago 'o ctic, from our own Sun 10 for, for, faraway S-Doradu. (it's one mill ion lime$ as bright a s our Sun) in the large Mogel lon ic Cloud - those chop te .. are so co ndensed thot the reader finds himself flounderi ng in 0 maze of while dworh , red giant" and Cep hied variables . This reviewe r wo ul d be forst to ad mit t hat thi s cr" icism is unfair and is the product of hi s own ignorance. At the some time, it must be ad mitted thot " E~p l o ri ng the Distonl Stars " toke s in iust oboul all th e ter ritory, universal , galacti c, and cos mic, t hot the re is. Kenneth He uer, F.R.A .S., has delivered mor e than a thousand lect ures a t the Hoyden Planetarium, New York . His book di scusses the variou s fotes whi c h hove bee n advan ced os Ihe po .. ible end of the world. The Moon mighl opp.ooch so closely tha t !idol waves will ove rwhelm the con ti nent. , or in even cl oser approach our .otell"e might shatter in to a million or two fragments which would destroy the world in a shower of supershrop· nel. We might perish in a co ll ision with on erran t as teroid, with the glowing h ead of a cornel, or even in a heod ·on co ll ision with another star of a magnitude as great as the Sun. It's possible t ho ! the e nd mighl come when the Sun's fi.e dies and mankind voni.he s beneath the mantle of another Ice Age 0.Ihe opposi te e~treme-when the Sun blows up os a novo or e\len a supernova. All of these are natural phenomena. All ore remotely possible bu t very for from probable ond so for in the future that no one need worry unless he e~pects to be around this po rticulor 'phe(e forty or fifty million or billion yeors from nOw. 37 space jo url1al �··H ••• rh. di..,,!rou, .lred o~ ;ull On. d ,,-CMcaga, lIIiO>Oi.-.1 rb. Sun'. uplodlng I. .ba .. n. ".d ,h. Lah Michlg". Chicago ~I ••, ha •• a,..,dy baU.d a,,"a,:' ICh,I., l an.".11 Wu. r,,,fian 1,0'" THf NEXT $0 II WON n .... SJ '·n. f",th I. ,!ruck b, " ,_" co",.' .. ho•• head i. ahoul 10,000 ""I •• In dio",.'.,:' ICh.I., lon, .".11 lIIull,,,fion 1'0'" fH! NUT $0 IllIION HA,~SJ �I �d;,.""". ··r~. MOOft ,"0, h d''''''ft IH>ck to .~. E",.~ ;ft .~. ,."'" •• f ...., •. At " "I 20,000 ,.;f•• , ;, will h ,;n to " •• ok "P. ,,,1ft,", ~",. "'....... <HI .~ . . . . . ,,~ :. {C~."., '" ..... n ill" ..,,,,;,,,, I,,,", THf NUT 50 If WON YEAU .• �I However-ond her .. is where you a nd I ond the Australian aborigines (Ire d er.nilely co"cerned - M•. He uer gives us to th ink ove r th e possibility Ihot rna'" himself might Ihe .uicidol trigger! If mon p .. "ists- -as ... ems 10 be pers isting-in e ~ perimenli n9 hyd rogen atoms, wiln (,nion ond fu,ion. pull mOn with with cobol t co sing' ond world w ide fallou t , then you CO" w rit e your own ticke t ogoi nsl the doy when some junior-9rode Raspu!;n dores the fre .. w orld to p l oy hi. o w n brOrld of Ih.n- ,ion roulelte . It is som el iling to thin . about, bvi in the mean time, he'" ote Iwo books wllid. belong in Ihe librory of every astronomer, profes" sionol or omol .. "" _HoRmon Birney Se,ence ond Human Volues By J. Sro nowski. 94 pages, N ew Yor . Julian Me .. ner. S3. II is quite f,tting tha t thi, volume is i!lu,· trated wi th wmks cr ..ated in the m" laphysical ima gi"atian of William Blake. " Poetry," writes Mr. B,anaw , ~i, "does no t mOVe us to be jusl 0, unjust, in it.elf. It moves uS to tho ughts in whose light iustice and inj u,tic e O'e ,een in feodul ,hmpne,s o f ou lline.'· Tole rance among sci .. nli,ts connol be based on indifl,,'encc; it mu,t be bo,,;-d on ,especl, Mr Branow,l, i says. Resp .. ct as a persona! value im plies, in any society. th e public odnowl .. dgments of ius tice and of due honoL These me values whith to the laym an seem mos t r.. mote from any abslract stud y. What , Ihe layman may ask. hov .. human vo lu .. s such 0< justic.. , honor, and Ih .. ,esped o f man for man 10 do with science? "The que,tio","' re plie' Mr . Bronow.ki, ··i. a fooli.h su rvi vor of tho.e "inete.. nth·cen tu,y quo"" i. which 01. way. came bad to equate ethics wi th the BOOK of Genesis." He mys that science confronts the work of o ne mon with Ihol of an other and groll. ea(h on each; and it (annat survi ve withoul jusliee and honor and respect belween man and man. Only by th e.e meons can science pursu e ih stlladlost objed, to e~plQfIl trulh. If these volue. did not e)( ist, Mr. Bronowl~i be lie ve s, then the society of scie ntists would hove to invent them to mo ke the practice o f "ollnce pO Hi blll . In societ ies whefe these value s did not e~ist, scien(e has hod to create them. What power hold. the compony 01 scholon togethe r? In onswe' to his ,hetQficol que' tion, Mr. Bronowski re plies that , in an obviav, �serne, theirs i. the power o f virtue. All .<holors in their wo.k o.e of course oddl y virtuous by the world ly standard. of pu b lic li le . They do nOT ma~e wild claim.; they do nO I chea t; they do nol try to perluode at a ny co.l; Ihey appeal neither to preiudice no. to autharily; they o.e often frank abaul their ign o , a nce; their d ispules are faidy decorous; Ihey do nal co nfu. e what i. be ing o.gued with race , po lit ico, s.. ~ Or age; they listen potiently to the young and to the old who bo th know eye.ything Con cerning this, Mr. Sronow.ki writ"., " Th",,, Ore the gene.o l yidue! of scholarship, ond they are pecu liarly the virtues of science. Individually, scientist, no doubt hoye human weokneue. . Several of th em may have mi.treue. or reod Karl Marx; same of them may even be homose~lIols and read Plato. Bllt in 0 world in which slote and dogma seem olways ei the r to Ihreaten or to coiole, the body of scienti.t. is ,roined to ovoid, and organi zed 10 resist, every form o f persuasion b ut Ihe foci. A scientist who breob this rule, os Lysenko has done, is ignored . A scientist who flnds that th e rule has bee n broken in his loborolory, os I<om· merer found, kills himself." Much of Mr. Bronowski ' . thin kin g can be said to follow I(o n"s cotegoticol imperotive. It i. quite oppore nt that he conliders man , with his Irog ic dignity, to be on important little creature in the ' cheme of things. Re · gordle .. of where mon is destined to go, th is reviewe r is re minded by Mr. Bronowski's book of Ih e line by the poet Rilke who, after seeing Picosso 's pa int ing, " The Sal rim · bonquel.·· wrote : " But ,ell me, who ore Ihey, thes .. O(fObOI S, even more fl ee ling Ihon we o urselve .. .'" In o n oge of cyn ic ism, M•. Bronowski·. book is ,efre. hing . Thi•• eviewer recommends il. _Ralph E. Jennings The Space Child', Mother Goose. By Frederick W insor. IIl usl ra ted by Ma rian Parry. New York, Simon and Schuster. S3.50. The outhar o f Ihis ' pace child's hydroponic garden of verse, apologizes, in his dedication , .. .. if if. vieulI ieu and il leaves you co ld . Forgive us, dorling$, We're Awfully Old." , 42 space iournal These poems ore not reolly y;eull ;eu, but in 011 probability they will leave the dorling. cold becou.e Ihey ore written for .poce porenh---and e"'remely inlellecluol spoce parent. 01 Ihot. Even so, ma ny of the · poems have 0 whimsi cal twist Ihal is provocative and delightful; lor ellomple, a poem illuslroring th e hypersonic genesis of loday's Everymon , Solomon Grundy Wolked on Monday Rode on Tuesday Motored Wed nesday Planed on Thursdoy Rodeled Frida y Spoce.hip Sal urdoy Time Machine Sunday Where is the end for Solomon Grundy? -M . Roymond �I I , Yep-New York sho ;s 0 nice ploce, bul I wou/dn ', wonl 10 live thor. +lDVfJ1TUR£S Or- ' L~SKfl' S; ") :{J~ ..... . \ ., �IIlACTt O Il I '01 populi I ~ .... d", '0 P'''u, d.loy •. 011 ,.oclion .. oil ond ","n~ • • «iph .~b ... i""d '0 SPACE lo~'nol .",,' be odd,.... d ' 0 SPACE Jo~'n",. P,O. ao. 12. H ~n".ill • . Alobo .. o. 5;""0,11 all .... b.«.p'.on. or i"'I~i.i •• <oo<",.ing .... b • • «iplion. m~" b. odd ..... d ,,, SPACE lou,no!. P.O. Bo . 9 4. No.h.ille, hnn. Dea r Edit o r, Dea r Edito r, Than k you very muc h fo r the copy of the spring e di tion o f SPACE Jo urnal, wh ich is ded ica ted to my la te husband. You have e very right to be p roud o f your publication, and 10 be pa rticularly proud of the article a bou t my husband. It i. on" of the ve ry best that will be in the boo k I keep for p ublished stories abou t him. Wit h congra tula ti o ns on thi. fine .tory, a nd apprec ia tio n of your courtes y, since rely W orce.ter, Mass. Mrs. Esthe r C. Go d d ard Your Vol. 1, No. 2. o f SPACE Jou rnal has just fallen into my ha nd s. As I am a science teacher in the l ake Geneva High School. I was very in ' eres red 10 see what you had to offer. ... I was shocked howeve r to find that 'he photograph on pa g e 12, fi gure fou r, was cop· tioned Ihe Cra b Nebul a . This must be o n erro r. It loo ks more li ke M51, th e W hi rl poo l Ne b ul a in Cane. Ve no tici . . I am a lso the sponso r of the lo~e Gene va science club. My clu b members have as ke d Dea r Edi tor. I ha ve read your first issue of SPAC E Journ a l very completely and from my observa· tion I would like to IIote that of a ll such p ublicol ians on the marke l, you" i. b y for the mOll .uperior. I offer my cong ratula tio ns for a terr ific job . .•• W . A. Shuping Direc tor o f O pera tions abou t "ar'ing a roc ket division in the clu b . Now I am well a ware of Ihe dangers tha t lie in such on ope ra tion, and I do not wont anyone to get hurt. I have raid my people that I do not wan t them to build a "y overnight ra(ke t and rho t the re is li lli e ' a be g a ined from jus. throwing some thing toge ther and . hooti ng it off. I wo nt Mi ssile. Rocket a nd Space Division Vitro Corpora tion of Americ a Martinsb urg, W. Va. a lo t o f study to go into such a th i"g be fore Dear Editor, tion and operation of .uch a club. I know I enjoyed your spring issue very much, bu t r wou ld like 10 ca ll your a tt ention to figu re 4 , p a ge 12. I am sure that you will fin d ' ho t i' is no t the Cra b Nebula bu t tho ' it is ' he Wh irl_ pool ga lo )(y ho me times c a ll ed W hirlpool Nebu la!. M51. as "ded in Charles Messier's list. Frank H. Reev es Nashville, Tenn. no thing about rocke' fuel. euepr Ihot rhey are very touchy and d a ngerous to handle. Ii there some kind of p rog ram thai we (a n undertake tha t would in teres t the clu b members and sti ll be safe and construe' ;ve? Photo Se rvi ce Depo rtment Donald W . Ca rte r Yerke' Observatory 44 space journal it is done, if ever. Frankly I would like .ome good sound a d vice on how to p roceed with the organiza_ Williams Boy, Wi s(. �Readers Reevef and Corter, and a hasl of others, are correct in identifying the illus/ro tion on page 12 as the Whirlpool Nebula, or M51, in Cones Venaticj, The mi;<·up occurred when the stoff wa$ ollempting to rush the second inue through the printerJ alter cele· broting the successful orbiting of bplorer I. While this is certainly no ~alid eJlCUlie, we leel that the circumstonceu were at leoft mitigating A. for reader Carter's science dub and ils activities in rocketry, I urg e you not to at· iempt to build rockets prope!led by any form of e;<plosi~e, such os block powder, home· mode mixtures based on powdered metals, compreued gaues, etc. You should begin by tludying the basic physicol principles which underlie rocketry . It may not sound inviting or exciting to begin a project in rocketry by reading physics. However, you will find that your project will lake on new depths 0/ mean· ing and possibilities os you delve inlo Ihese basic principles Only alter you ha~e mos· tered Ihe fun:;lame ntals and have become completely familiar with the deadly power of even Ihe moll simple e .. plosive will you be ready 10 allempt the construction 0 / rockets . Editor . Dear Editor, Our group ha, recently become very ,nleresled in the properties 01 space. We found some questions lor which answelS we,e un obtainable. Since we have heard of your mago l 'ne, we wondered whether you courd be of oHistonce to us. Would it be po"ible for man to adopt himself to the moon in a great number (perhaps millions) of years? We would oppreciole any aid which you could supply on Ihi. subiecr. Ridley College Joe f. Low Ontario, Canada In answer 10 your question "Would it be pas· SIble for meJn to adopt himself to Ihe moon in a great number (perhaps milliond 0/ years?", I must give you both a yel and a no, qualifying each according to my interpretation of your question. The onswer is no if you are thinking ahout a daptation by way of what we call evolution since all lorms of life, as we know it, require 1/ you mean by adaptation man' s abIlity to crea te artIficial environmental conditions on the moon which will "venluolly permit estob · lilhmen t of e~pe"mentol scientific 'obo,olories, mining, foclorie5, and even cities, th e answer i. a very positive yes. Editor . Dear Editor, Since the first issue 01 SPACE Journal was dedicated 10 Prof. Hermon Oberlh, " Father of Aslronouti"." and Ihe second to Dr. Robert H. Goodord, "Father of Rocketry, '" it is fitting to note that the careerS of the.e two great scientists crossed briefly in 1921. On learning of Dr. Goddord's report "'A Method of Reaching El(treme Altitudes," Prof. Oberlh, then a .tudent of mothemoli" 01 Heidelberg, wrole 10 Dr. Goddard , in his limited English, as follows: "Deor Sir: Already many yean t wor~ 01 the prob. lem to pou over Ihe atmosphe,e of our eorlh by meon. of a rocket. When I was now publishing the result of my examinations and cokulotion., I learned by the newspaper that I am nol alone in my in· quiries and that you, deaf Sir, have alreody done much important Walk. 01 this sphere. In spite of my efforts, I did not succeed in gelling your books oboul this obiecl. Therefore, I beg you, dear Sir, 10 let them have me. At once afte r coming out of my work I will be honored to send it to you, for I think tha t only by common work of Ihe scholars of all notions can be solved this grea t problem. Yours very truly, Hermonn Oberth Student Math. He idelb eHg'" Hunt sville, Ala. George A. Ferrell Thonb to reader Ferrell fa, bringing Ihil in _ teresting le/ler to the attention of OIJr other readers . In Moy or June of 1922, Dr. God· dord sent 0 copy of his work 10 Prof. Oberlh . 8y Ihe I,me thaI Prof. Ober/h's own work Waf publilhCld in Germany in 1923, Dr. Goddard had carried hi. experiment5 in liquid.fue/ed rockets to the point of actuoltestfiring. Edilor . 0~Ygen. 45 space journal �Dear Editor, I read your copy of SPACE Journal while making fudge. Although 'he fudge wain', any good, I thoroughly enjoyed your magazin e. Articles I especially liked w~re Dr, ...on Bro un's "Where Are We Going?", " Father of Rocketry," "Rocket Moil," and " Reaction ." SPACE Journal has everything in it tho' I ha ... e always wished for but never found until now . Please con'inue the good work , but pleose don 't discontinue the poetry o r spoce fiction . S!. Louis. Mo . Donna Lucido Dear Editor, I hoye just finished reading Vol. I, No. 2. of SPACE Journ o l. I especially enjoyed the article "Mars and Beyond." A number of other boys here 01 school are interes ted in space travel. We have all found your publication helpful in the classroom . I've read a number of magalines concern ing space travel, b ut I rond yours the mo,t factual. I like the way it giyes a brood view of the topic you are discussing. t beg to differ with Joe Gib10n ' '' Reaction,'' Vol. 1, No. 21. I th in k tha t the short Itory gives a bit 01 variety to the magazi ne and that you should continue jt. St. John 's Military Academy Barry Hackner Dela fi eld, W i1 . Dear Editor You would do your magazine and it. read· ers a se rvi ce if yOU dropped the space fiction. W illiam E. Dennen Associate Editor Children's Booh Lillie, Brown a nd Co. Boston, Man . Readers luc ido, Dennen, and Hodner lauch upon a paint which hos hod the sloff in graye doubts , the desirability of conlinuing space fkl io" and poelry in SPACE Journal. So for opinion has been eyenly di~ided among the editors, b ut the fi"al decision will ho~e 10 come from Ihe readers. For Ihis reason, we are mosl anxious 10 have the reoc l;on to space fiction and poetry from as many readers 01 possible. We also suggest, porenlheticoJly, 46 space journal • Ihal reader lutido read her SPACE Journal either before Or olte r-nol while-making her ne xt balch of fudge . Editor. Dear Edi tor. My copy of SPACE Journal, Vol. " No.1, second printing , h01 for its caver a reproduc· tion of Chesley 80neslell 's poin'ing depicting 'he se poro lion of the firs' stage of a four· stage spaceship. Yet th e caption on the can· tents page reveed, that a portroi' of Prof. Oberth should have graced the cover. This is borne out by the pho to on page J 1 of issue No.2, showing such a cover. The cover change, I assume , was due to Ihe need for a second printing. but why didn ', you change the caption? Then too, different (overs for the some issue may con fu se things a bit for readers who wish to collect and bind SPACE Journal. An unimportont moller, but I thought that it should be brought to your ollenllon. I too sho red Mr . Gibson·, feelings (reaction, spring issuel when I first sow you r maga zine on the newsstand. And I too become 0 (on· vert after glancing through it. excellent publication. Chicago, III. Yours is on Ken Soblik The reprinting of the first issue was done in a hasty manner. Th e change in co~er was dane no t wilh guile but with Ihe advice of a large news di$lribUlor. Th e discrepancy which reader Sob/ik nales on the conten ls page was a b/und"'r which resuhed from the hosle in gell;ng Ihe second printing ou t. Incidenlolly, Ihe cover on Ihe second printing o f the firs l inue il a product of SPACE Journal's art sloff -which is inexpressibly proud of having ;ts efforts mistaken fa. Ihol quality which space enthusiasts have tome 10 identify as the Boneslell touch. Edil or. �FI CTi OH I beyond th is st ar J a m es D aniels, l . J r. Synopsis of Pre<:e ding Installment The Palomar Grovp, a s(;ientific organization dedicated to the survival of mankind in the universe in 1971 hod succeeded in estab · lishing on Observatory on the Moon . The Group sou ght th en some . vidence of life elsewhere in the solar system, in the hope of find ing answers to th e d ilemma of man 's eternal conflict on Earth . The high albedo of Europa the third moon of Jupiter see med artificial, and artifice indi _ cates intelligent life . Brad Hudson of the Palomar Group with a two ·man crew, Steve Amhearsl and Myron Drake, in a magnetic drive space craft, arrived an Europa, where they found great cities svrv;ving under gigantic glasdike domes . Th e human inhabitants of this hermetic world had survived a dying planet, bul, in doing so, had submitt",d to on abso/vte communal go vernme nt under a ce ntra/ body calle d th e Primesters. The Earthme n were held for observation by the variovs Socia ·, Bio·, and Psycho-Physio logical Councils . In Ko ·Pall, the ruthless Judge Superior of the Primesters, Brad lov"d Ihe ;ncarnatian of Eorth's own pow",r·driven latolitaria" political leaders. Ko·Pall declared the Earthmen a threal 10 Europa and ordered thei, destruction. In Mu -Bor the ge"tle Director of Bio-Science s, Brad fovnd a surviving champion of reason and hope for hvmankind. And in Kay ·Bar, Mu-Bor's beautiful blonde dought",r, Brad found the love Ihat he hod never had time for on Earth. Mu·Bar, on pre/elll of scientific stvdy, hod secvred permission 10 move Brad temporarily into his own apartment. Now a plan of escape and relurn to Earth for the Earthmen hod been arranged by Mu·Bor. J.",., . ," , g l . D• • I. I, J • ., 0" '- •• bll,.I1 .. , "11'1,,, I, , ,,. c.,,,., OfII,•• ""., "'".tr, 01". " " ' ' ' ' 0'0 ..... 1",•••IiI.. o. ;"' 5'''CE 10., .. ,. ..., bot. ,. .. un, I~ [ ....'"". Aloloo ... , "f ... __ I. . . . . '." ....... ",. , 0 ,ho A I. , .. ....... 26, d., ... _ IJ,_ <. II, ho . , _ , ... 1,1.1_.;,. '" .. I.bo_ ....... ho ,"';.001 . . ... """ .... I~ l .g';.O. Ke 100. lO. .h, [.,I;'~ '" high .. _ , _d 1~ . ho 1/001 .... ;.., '" Hi.... hli,hod _ l "",I.... ,,-, " .. ;. . . . 4 ..",,., ;0 hid> _'''' . _ • __ 'eI;. . . . . . ;, ty ... _ ~ 0 . . . . . .1 Ioooed .., 50,' ..... ..,1;.1«. 110 '_ .""001 .od ............ , -0 ..... I~ •• '. "'obo_ .......,......."'•. <."... Part II Brad had come from the Ihawe r and stood looking through the skylight a t the never c easing eruptions on the face of Jupiter. AI _ ma lt like a sun in itself; for this moon , Europa, Jupiter was Ihe sun. Europa 's whote power system was harnessed 10 Jupiter's miraculou s high pressure hydrogen activity. So many Jtronge reactions unknown on earth were posJible under those tremendoul pressu res . Someday maybe on expedition could be landed th e re. Maybe Ko- Pall was righl; perhaps Eorth _ men were a tltreot 10 his world. They would al l think tlte ,arne way about e.o;peditions 10 th is world. They would crawl here like mogga ll, over and in and around Ihese domes. The sharp whine 01 the door bUller announced a vi,itor standing in range of Ihe sconner. Brad faced the door ond in a firm voice addreued the mike pickup above it, " Open ." The door slid bock silently, revealing Ihe wizened f'gure 01 Mu-Bar. Mu -Bor entered quickly and (rossed the room to stond by the now neotly covered bed, wt>iet> se rve d during waking nour. as 0 divon. "I hod almost fo rgo lle" Ihot today was the day, " Brad ,aid. " I have arranged for you r friend s 10 be 41 space journal �broughl 10 my laboralory in Ihe Scien·Dome. The ship is Ihere ond ready. Now 10 Ihe event. The car awails in Ihe por I, You musl go directly to Ih e Primesler Chombe .. , Remember thol only wilh Ko-Poll as hostage can you expect 10 hove ony guarantee of safely until we con get you into space, Once out, Ihere i. of course nothing to stop you. ore no ships to pUfJue you." There Brad had stood focing the smoll man while he talked. ' 'I've wondered about that, Mu- Bar. It's one queslion we hoven' l discuued, Why no space croft?" "You recalt thot I told you of how, in Ihe ancient time s, our people crossing space stopped on Ihe moons, ond how the inhabitonh of each of the moons in turn died, until only Europa was lefl. Here, in trying to !urvive, we sacrificed many things. The .ecrel of space trave l wos one of the le. " Sin n the building of the Dome, we have hod neither the indinotion nor the desire to trovel Ihrough space, " Mu·lio r told him. " We hove Our world recreated and livable. We Brad, if you volue any thing I can lell you, thgt if I had th e right to give 0 dying wo rd, Iho l word is 'doub t'-forever plant doubt in men', minds. If once they foil to doubt, Ihey ore dead-for curiosity, the ferlile ultimate that will let mon survive, is born only of doubt. Only through doubt can we ovoid onchoroge to hindsight. Doubl and you can sh ed old doctrines--open the mind to new, to change, 10 foresight. When mOn hos all the answers he ne eds, when he accepts a stalemate bal. once-o compromise of self for exis te nce of Ihe social whale-then it is 011 over. Brad, your answer. lie no t in dead wor lds and old people, but in the young ones and ne w world s, It 's up to eoch new generolion to adopt, and to leorn, ond to progress-Io fond in Ihe universe the expan.ion of the glory of creolio n. Eo ch generolian musl expand its ability 10 comprehend, must go beyond the limited horizons of Ihe generotion before. If Ihere are answers to your que$tions, Ihey lie for beyond Ihis star you call Ihe sun and ils nine insignjficonl worlds. Some of the onswe .. lie in the foc! thaI there is a beyond, o fron ti er yet to be explored by the young surviv e . W e need no t go further. Pe rhaps, .ince su rviving a dying planet and osten sibly esta blishin g Ihe perpetui' y 01 our race, we hgve become complacent in a sort of rgcial secu rity . We hove occomplished the ultimate; hence, our race kultur becgme one of s,ggno · t ion~not g dyna mic thin g. You see we tru ly did grow old 01 (I race . Preservation of the race enloiled the com plete and uH e r 'u b mis. sian of the port 10 the who le, so thai th e in_ div idual, as you hove leen here, is nothing. The socie ty is the organism, The entire econ · omy, la w. , technology, everything, is geafed to this, 10 the perpe tuation 01 the perfect bol · once this organism has attained, Ihe bolonce thol olone ossures its continued e xis tence," Mu· Bor brake off abruptly and then added " ~but we hove lolked of th is so mony times , you have cited the communal half of your Own world and tne slow submission of your entir e Ear th p e ople to its spell. And so you must get boc k- for the sa ke o f the human kind you muSI get bock gnd tell them _s how them Ihgt tngt way can only b e the end. Remember , 48 space jour na l • i ��and curious. Yes, Brad, go bock to Eorlh and lead man ou l inlo Ihe grand cosmos. "Bul enough, Ihe lime is near. Off wilh you. We musl have Ko·Poll in hand . You will b arely hove lime to gel him 01 his firs t session resl." Mu· Bo r was propelling him with gentle pressure loward the door. ,· t will have my dough Ier allhe Scien·Oame to see you awoy, " Mu· Bor said, and foin lly smiled os Brad looked bo ck 01 him in surprise. " t know how you feel abaul her." They were ou l in Ihe aparlment corridor now near Ihe Transi·por l. Mu·Bar lurned and hurried away befo re Brad could reply. Left a lone, Brad was conscious of the foci Ihol he hod no weapon. He remem b ered how· ever, quickly, thai weapons were none xis tenl here, for physical threots on Europo were nolh· ing. Sacrifice o f a Iile was only a .nolch on Ihe hond 01 the social entity. A few moments loler in Ihe T,ons'l Tube he sped lo word the lerminol unde r Ihe Primeslel Dome aboa rd Mu·Bor 's leor·drop Tron" ·cor on 0 fr ic tio nless cushion of oi •. There were only len cors in the huge ter· min ol when he orrived, which meon l only a Primester Session-no crowd 01 pe titioners to comp licole the situalion. He le fl the cor b e .ide Ihe one with Ko·Poll 's block non insignia on il. Upstair< in Ihe circulor corridor Brad found Ko · Poll's cubicle. He slipped inside the dark room ond wailed. His b rea th rasped hal in h is lungs. Oh, for 0 breolh of reol air. He could nol remember, now, even Ihe smells of real a ir, a fler monlhs of brea thing Ihis sta le co "ned stufl'. He hod almost reloKed whe" the door suddenly swung open. A figure shadowed the , Iii o f li g ht ocrou the floor. Brad tensed ogoinst Ihe wall. The door stid shut. There wos iust one woy--o primitive flyi"g tackle. He crou<hed 10 spring ot Ihe skodow. " Brad, " the whisper was Kay·Bar's. " Here, " ke moved to touch ker . " Quick, we kove not much time. You mus l g o. Ko · Poll know. of your plan. He has mon itored your movements. He will try 10 stop you here. My !other soys to forge t Ko· Poll ond come directly to the Scien·Dome; ke will have YOLlr frien d s tkere." "If Ko · Poll knows, he will kove them guarded." " Only from you. He will not hi"de. my fatker . Now let's kLlrry." Brad slipped i"to Ihe empty corridor ond storied toward the ter minal e leva tor. " No. Brad," Koy·Bo r tugged hi. arm and pulled him p ost Ihe el e va lor door. "They'll b e guarding the terminal." They raced on o.ound Ihe corridor to a smaller and unoblrusive door. II opened inlo a <hu te, slon l'ng dow"ward. "Come," Koy·Bor pulled him in . A sled type tran spor ter stood "ear Ihe door, " Ge t 0"," Koy-Bo, stepped onlo the sled, " This sluice my lother has kept in repair. Only he knows of il. Jj was used by the A"cie,," eons ago, It i. primitive bu t my father hos kep i it in repair since he discovered it. He hod hi. Scien ·Oome buitt a t the other end o f it afte r Ko · Poli become JLldge Superior. And thi. tunnel is shielded. The ScaMen can', follow us." He sat down on the sled o"d gripped the hondroil •. Kay-Bar .ent it hLlrlling olo"g the tun"el. At tke Scien·Dome Mu-Bor hurried Ihem from the doset where they . Iopped. " The others ore here," he soid. "I hod to "oreothize them, bullhey'U recove r." He ope"ed a fina l door to le t them in to a $<intiIlOling room of plastic ond met a llic fixtures. ��Beside a long table in Ihe cen ter of the lob were Amhe a rd and Droke, sitting ered and slift in an ob",;ous, hypnotic Iiole. "They'll respond 10 any commorld, Brad. You'll be oble 10 operate the ship all right, even wi th them in Ihis ,tole. Just give them detailed instruction. (lnd they ",Hi handle their regular duties efficienctfy." Mu-Bar turned 10 Ihe men. "You will rise ond board the ship and toke your u5u<.:11 stations. The ,hip i. diret'; lly across the ramp beyond rhat door:' Mu -Ber pointed to Ihe door ooou Ihe' room. The Iwo men rose and Ihumed zombie-like across the room and through Ihe door which Kay-Bar opened for them Mu-Bo. turned to Brod with brows koit. His shoulders slumped lower. He looked from Brad to Koy -Bar. "Yov must lake her with you;' he ~oid, "We are dying, Your world i ~ young yel. We ore long post our gro"e, a society in ils senescence. We may drift on a few more of you r centuries; bul it musl end, for we w'th all our scien>::e, all our eOlls of efforl, ho"e not found the Iloble answers which you come seeking. Perhaps we ne"er started to look for them, Neither our technology nor our sociology could so"e us forever. The communal society, as you have seen, is not the answer for human kind; for wch a soc'ety .tifles Ihe '''nole curiosity of the 'ndiv'dual. We killed .t here and storied to I 52 space journal I die intellectually e"e n as we learned to sur"i"e physically." Mu-Bor moved to the door and looked after Ihe two men who hod gone out. '" am sorry tha t you must return 10 your young world with. ou t answers; yet, perhaps before you are answers better Ihan any thai you or I or anyone could formulate: one is that each world must sal"e it ~ awn dilemma, not borrow from others; another i. thai if life can exisl simultaneously on the same form as ours in two place ' in our own syslem, the n there must be millions of other worlds where life e~ists in this eternal uni"e rs e. A never ending frontier! Conflict itself perhaps cannot be e liminated, but the energies whi ch would be exerted in struggle can be channe led into cur io us sni/f,ng about, a . long a. Ihere is a franl ier to sniff in. Find ways 10 probe ii, Eorlhmon , and your Eorth kind will li"e. Do not build up walls around you and Iry to outli"e your own worl d. Fi nd new ones. Since you ho"e slorted as young as your world is and have mode such progres<, there is no reason why you cannot contin ue 10 reach out and out inlo this infinite universe." " And you, Mu-Bor, you will come with us, too, " Brad urg e d. " No, I must stay. It is too lole for us_ for me. 10m of thi, wor ld. My daugh ter is young enough not to have absorbed this world's cu llure. As I have told you since her concep· tion, I ho"e guarded her from it. She is, as you have said, like an Eorthwomon. Be,ides, I shalt die hoppy, knowing that this world sur"i"e, in yours-that the old is port of the new, that your maling represents the sur"i"al of our world ofler all , ,ince truly your progeny wi ll be .Om of thi, world, too. Now it is time to go." Mu -Bor rushed them toward the door. From Ihe starboard port Brad, with Kay· Bar . quiet lears hur ting a. his own and with his orms around her, watched Ihe tiny f,gure of Mu -Bar standing inside the Dome while Ihe port able launch romp Mu-Bor hod co,,,' ruc'ed wheeled Iheir ,hip into position oUllide. The ship silen lly spiroled up. The crushing occelerotion began. Brad turned with KoyBar to the forward pori and looked lo ng across the darkne .. at the tiny point of pole blue IIghl_Earth. I �Frankly Speaking ..• We Takc The Down-To-Earth Approach Not many of us among the m any thousands of Reynolds people an' lining l'P for a ticket on the first mAnned rocket to the moon, We don't doubt the trip will be m(lde, Recent progress in space tra\el de\elopmems has been tOO over .... helming to leave much room for doubt. .\Ialr.:ing the balli~!ic shells for missiles and rockets definitely is our line and no one .... ilI be prouder than we if that moon rocket is " Reynolds-wr:opped," We've had t. g;oocl bit of experience along the rocket and mi~sile line. Our Shemeld, Alabama, plant h:ls manufactured a number of high precision aluminum ballistic shells [or Reynold s Metals Companv the highly succc,sful Redstone missile and its dramatic first cousin. the satellite-launChing Jup itcr-C rocket. ReYllolds Met als Compun) is the nalion's second largest producer of aluminum lind our modern fab ricating plants are manned by (!'COple "ilh highly practical down-to-earth meta1 fabricating I.no" -how, We're proud of the fact that this specialized experience and I.no" ledge has helped us to work "",ith Army and Chr)'sler technical people in giling Ihe United States more and beller missiles and rocl.elS for the money, We pledge our~elves to continue mecting "out-of-I hisworld" needs with a "down-to-earth" :Ippro:.ch to missile and rocket makin g. Richlllond 13, Vil',rin ia " The handbook for tomorrow "N ot until this book has there boon one important reference book wh ich hu been able lQ explain all phase! of the new uge--the space age, Anyone selectiug this book cannot I)O$sibly put it down feelin):' thnt it has b<len anything othel' than" fa scinutin):, experienCI:'."_.l/illo" lJ, II /C llpcr, Vit>'o CO")), of A ",~ ...'ca , Lllvi$hly illustrated with over 300 l,hotOJlrllph~ maps and diagrams. $ 6 .95 , Post pa id with ~h e(k or money orde r from DUTTON N ew Y•• k 10, N , Y. 53 space journal �. dA? ~~ ENG..!; Exploring New Concepts Manufacture Of: Of EERING, Precision Design, Engineering And SPECIAL MACHINES, AUTOMATION, SERVOS, MISSILE COMPONENTS, GAGES, MACHINING AND FABRICATING, 2300 CLIFTON ROAD 54 sp~ce journal NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE INC. �I For your future convenience-but in the meantime use our Huntsville facilities HOLIDAY INN HOTEL Blast Off with SPACE Journall The world's fastest growing space magazine. Don't depend on the limited number sold at newsstands, insure your fu ture copies by becoming a subscriber. Fill out the post-paid card now. 55 space journo!ll �• Neither snow nor rain or or gloom of night ••• " We arc nov.' capable o f lending an object outside t he carlh'. gravlullo"al ii~ld . Such a prepuhio" .yuem could carry ro~k~ 1 m"illclter. loth" moon, and ,"'c are ;r.hle \0 ".timate the ~o.t of a rocket mail Itam? nc~d"d. The prol>lunl inhe.",,! In the or ..em h .. ve ;olre"dy been .ol,,~d by prosr" .. In aohd propellant rocketry." Dr . ll. W. IU t chey P rojeclI ouch ". "Rocket Mail 10 the Moon" may be nc"" . . ary .oone. than we t hink . Skilled. '"oll · nically t."\ned ind"'Ld".l. are """ded byThiokol to enable .uch future proj_cu. Addu •• ,nqw.,e. to: DIVISION· HUHTSVlllf. ALAI_ A ~ �I BROWN ENGINEERING HUNTSVILLE . CO .• ALABAMA INC . �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 3, Summer 1958. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rocket City Astronomical Association Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Still Image Text Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacejournal_1958_summer Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Cold War Explorer satellites Jupiter missile Life on other planets Space race--United States--History--20th century Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/513/spc_mitc_001_062B.pdf 335ad2d95ada43df143aa5234640e96b PDF Text Text JOLIRNAL D E D I C A T E D T 0 T H E ASTRO - SCIENCES . . :..:•.•> . ' :: . .,�· ' . . .. .�-�-•.·.... .. . �. .. • • •• , . ,. . � .". ' t, ' . . ' ' RUSSIAN SPECIAL THIS EDITION: VILLAGE ON THE MOON 'FALL 1958 challenge �PROGRESS REPORT FROM AVCO RESEARCH NEVV LIGHT ON LABORATORY MHD* The Avco Research Laboratory was founded a little more than three years ago for the purpose of examining high­ temperature gas problems associated with ICBM re-entry. The success of this research led to the birth of a new cor­ porate enterprise, A vco's Research and Advanced Development Division. The Research Laboratory, now estab­ lished as a separate Avco division, has expanded to embrace all aspects of physi­ cal gas dynamics. We are currently gravid with several embryonic projects which we anticipate will likewise grow into new corporate enterprises. Our work in the physics, aerodynamics and chemistry of high-temperature gases is growing in the following areas: This shock tube photograph, taken by emitted light only, shows the typical shock wave configuration formed by high-velocity gas flowing around a pointed cone. NO MAGNETIC FIELD. , I I I I I - ... / I / -- ...... MagnetohydrodynamicsFlight and industrial power­ generation applications Space flightManned satellites Electromagnetic propulsion '\ These developments have created a num­ ber of openings for physicists, aerody­ namicists and physical chemists. If your background qualifies you to work in any of these areas, we would be pleased to hear from you. \ \ '' ' / ...... - Dr. Arthur Kantrowitz, Director Avco Research Laboratory I / Here is shown the magnetohydrodynamic displacement of the shock wave. The magnetic field is caused by electric current flowing through a coil of wire within the cone. This experiment qualitatively demonstrates the interaction of a high-temperature gas with a magnetic field. This effect would be expected to produce drag and reduce heat transfer to the body. WITH MAGNETIC FIELD. RESEARCH LABORATORY A P. S. A listing of laboratory research re­ ports indicative of the scope and depth of our activities is available. Address your request: Attention: Librarian, Avco Research Laboratory, 2385 Revere Beach Parkway, Everett, Massachusetts. *Magnetohydrodynamics, the study of the dynam­ ics of electrically conducting fluids interacting with magnetic fields. Division of Avco Manufacturing Corporation/Everett, Mass. Other divisions and subsidiaries are: AK Division Crosley Division Ezee Flow Division New Idea Division Crosley Broadcasting Corporation Lycoming Division Moffats Limited Research and Advanced Development Division �JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO-SCIENCES BOARD OF CONSULTANTS Dr. Wernher von Braun Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger Prof. Hermann Oberth Vol. I, No. 4 Earthman's First Moon Landing as rendered in oil by Con Pederson. Layout of cover by Dave Christensen and Bill Isbell. B. Spencer Isbell MANAGING EDITOIR ASSOCIATE EDITOR James L. Daniels, Jr. ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mitchell R. Sharpe, Jr. ASSISTANT EDITOR David L. Christensen GRAPHICS DIRECTOR Lee R. Moore, Jr. LAYOUT DIRECTOR Harold E. Price EDITORIAL CONTRIBUTOR David Akins STAFF ARTISTS Harry H.-K. Lange Con Pederson Ernest Harper BUSINESS MANAGER Richard T. Heagy PUBLISHER Fall 1958 COVERS EDITOR-IN-CHIEf Ralph E. Jennings CONTENTS EDITORIAL 2 PROJECTING WITH SPACE JOURNAL Dr. Wernher von Braun FEATURES 4 SOVIET TECHNICAL PROGRESS Ronald C. Wakeford 12 EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGE Frederick I. Ordway, Ill 31 IMPLICATIONS OF SOVIET PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Col. J. G. Mayton 41 A PROPOSAL FOR A VILLAGE ON THE MOON Hiroshi Kumagai 35 DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM-THE REAL CHALLENGE OF SOVIET SCIENCE Dr. Karel Hujer DEPARTMENTS METEORITES ........................ Global Reporting SPACE BOOKS Recent & Forthcoming SPACE POETRY "Frontiers" 52 REACTION ... Vox Populi 46 48 34 Space Enterprises, Inc. CONTRIBUTORS Mary Jane Day, Warren T. Musgrove, Agnes Hochberger, Molly Dee Isbell, Wanda Reid, Don Williams, Mrs. F. G. Saurma, and Photographs in Space Symposium, courtesy of Soviet Embassy. 1 I SUBMISSION OF MATERIAL The submission of material to this Journal is always welcom e; short articles of 500 to 3000 words are preferred. Send the original on white bond paper, typewritten, double spaced; plus two carbons. Leave at least a one-inch margin on all sides and key all illustrations with the text. Photographs shou Id be 8 x 10 inches on glossy stock. The author's name und title should be on the manuscript. A picture of the author and a short biographical note are required for publication. Security clearance for all material submitted is the responsibility of the author. Ple<1se send material to SPACE Journ,11 P. O. Box 82, Huntsville, Alabama. All material accepted lo r publication becomes the exclusive property of SPACE Journal. SUBSCRIPTIONS United States and Canada $2.00 per year (lour issues). Journal, P. 0. Box 94, Nashville, Tennessee. Foreign $3.00 per year. Pledse send all subscriptions to SPACE ADVERTISING Advertising rates will be furnished on request to Space En terprises, P. 0. Box 94, Nashville, Tennessee. New York and eastern states: Hale Carey, Mgr., Room 447 Graybar Bid. 420 Lexington Ave., New York City; western states: McDonald Thompson, Los Angeles McDonald-Thompson, 3727 W. 6th St.; San Francisco: 625 Market St.; McDonald-Thompson offices in Seattle, Wash., Portland, Ore., Denver, Colo., Houston, Tex., Tulsa, Okla. PUBLISHING SPACE Journal is the official organ of the Rocket City Astro nomical Association, Inc. a nonprofit, nonpolitical, scientific and educational organization in Huntsville, Alabama. © by SPACE Journal. All rights reserved. The Journal is published quarterly by Space Enterprises, Inc., in Nashville, Tennessee. Application for second-class mailing permit pending at Nashville, Tennessee. Space Enterprises, Inc.; George J. Merrick, Pres., Fred D. Wright, V-Pres, Richard Heagy, V-Pres; Thomas Schlater, General Counsel. J. M. Summar, Treas , L. E. Nordholt, Director. space iournai �Projecting With Space Journal Our Problem--Yours and Wernher von Mine Braun Two bright six-year-olds were out on the playground at recess. They were closely exam­ ining a spider_ crawling on a brick. "Don't touch it!'' exclaimed one first-grader. "It's -a poisonous Latrodectus moctons/" he added. "How do you know it's a black widow?" asked the second. "Whether or not it's a block widow," replied moppet number one, "the markings indicate that it is definitely of the genus Latrodectus." At this point, the school bell rang. "Let's go bock to class," said one of the youngsters. "We've got to finish stringing those darned beads." This, of course, is an apocryphal story. I tell it here merely to point out an obvious fatt: To neglect our children with precocious talents is nothing short of criminal waste of our human resources. Adlai Stevenson once summed up this problem in his elo­ _ quent prose: "We must not let indifference or unwillingness cause us to fail to see the problem of education in human terms-in terms of boys and girls with abilities and aspirations, children who may either be held down and defeated by a poor educational system or be given new possibilities and new goals by a good one. When we neglect education in an age of global conflict, we risk the very safety of our nation and the future of freedom in the world." No one with any compassion or common sense has ever, to my knowledge, presumed to suggest that bright students should be accorded attention at the expense of the overage student or the slow student. What has been suggested is that the bright stude_nt in some instances hos been penalized because of his brightness. In this regard, I hope and believe that ele­ mentary teachers ore ploying a vital role in developing and keeping alive the specialized interests of gifted children. We all can agree with Mr. Stevenso n that education is the passport to a bet­ ter society. It may stick in the craws of some, but it is a fact of life in 1958 that the race is to the swift, and the battle i s to the strong. The day is past when a student can expect, in his bland innocen ce, to "get by." When we compare ourselves to other countries, we sometimes find that we hove been weighed in the balance and found wonting. The New York Herald Tribune reported recently that Prince Charles, heir to the throne of Great Britain, at the age of eight is studying French grammar, world geography, long division, and multiplication, and getting "advanced drill in reading, writing, and spelling." This of course is the Blue Plate Special for a future monarch, but it shows what some youngsters are capable of digesting. The Gymnasium which I attended as a boy started its students out with a stiff course in the classics at the age of ten and Cor­ nelius Nepos at twelve. I hove never regrette d my good fortune in being exposed to such a diet. This same preoccupation with education is true of the rest of Europe and of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Dr. Lawrence G. Derthick, U.S. Commissioner of Education, returned recently from a trip abroad accompanied by ten U.S. educators. They were sobered by what they saw. In Len­ ingrad they noted a striking fact which pointed up what they described as Russia's "total commitment" to education: biology, chemistry, physics, and astronomy are required of all pupils, regardless of their individual aspirations. Language studies begin in the second grade. The Soviet race for military suprem acy is no more of a challenge than their race for supremacy in education. We cannot meet this challenge by leaving the problem to educators ·or to politicia ns alone. It is a people's problem. It is our problem. *Reprinted from the September 1958 "Instructor." 2 space journal �space • symposium * the russian space challenge to the free world �SPACE SYMPOSIUM soviet technical progress By Ronald C. Wakeford Sputniks l and II gathered much valuable information on ultraviolet and X-radiations, Ronald C. Wakeford graduated from South­ ampton University, England, with the Higher Notional Certificate in Aeronautical Engineering. His post graduate study was conducted at the some university. His professional career hos included engineering and business experience in three countries, England, Canada, and the US He is the author of numerous reports and articles dealing with rocketry and astronautics. He is Director of Research at National Research and Development Corporotion. and cosmic ray intensities. Sputnik Ill, how­ ever, carries much more complex instrumenta­ tion. Sputnik II contained thermal control equipment and sensitive elements to register such effects as temperature fluctuations and the internal temperature of the orbit­ ing vehicle. A spherical container contained the two radio transmitters and power supplies. The temperature of the external surface of Sputnik was also recorded. The Soviet Moon rocket program, which To measure the short wave radiations of the Sun, the Soviet gaining Earth probes used three photoelectric multi­ momentum, should result in the first inter­ pliers placed at an angle of 1 20 ° to each planetary vehicle being launched within the other. next few months. according to all reports is daily These received radiation, and the Backing up the current electric signal generated by the multipliers Soviet program were the successful launch­ was amplified by radio circuits and transmitted ings of the three Sputniks, the first two of to Earth through o telemetering device. which re-entered dense atmosphere and burned up. Data on cosmic radiation were supplied by two cosmic ray counters. Scientifically informed circles were not sur­ After a signal was broadcast that a definite number of prised that the Russians were far ahead of us particles had been counted, the particles in the astronautical field since, at many in­ were again recorded with a new signal broad­ ternational meetings and in their press, fore­ cast as soon as the same number was reached. casts By dividing the number of recorded particles hod been made of the impending booster by the time taken to count them, the Soviets thrust required to place Sputniks II and Ill in obtained the number of particles the counter orbit is indicative of the strides the Soviets trapped each second. hove made in creating large rocket motors found the intensity of radiation. satellite firings. The tremendous and new propellant fuels, advancing in the guidance field, and in developing high alti­ tude biological laboratories. vehicle which carried the As for the biological experiment, the dog Loiko was the first living organism to travel several days in cosmic space. It has been reported that the three-stage booster In other words, they second Soviet satellite into orbit developed a toke-off thrust of approXlimately 660,000 lbs. This Important scientific data on reactions to the gravity free, weightless, condition were obtained from this revolutionary biological exper!ment. addition, pulse beat, respiration, In arterial figure resulted in an apogee altitude of close blood pressure, cario-biopotentials, tempera­ to 1,000 miles. ture and pressure in the animal's cabin were 4 space journal �recorded and telemetered to receiving sta­ amount of compounds in chemical reactions tions. was controlled automatically, and the cabin Highly active chemical compounds were used to regenerate the air in the cabin of Sputnik was equipped with apparatus to feed the dog and eliminate wastes. The dog was II and to maintain the proper air These chemicals provided the ----- the carbon dioxide and surplus vapor. ..... ...._ =-==-=-=�-=-:.-:--::!q ...... , �---�J--�--------- I I _.... ....... "' / Sputnik II 1. JETTISONABLE NOSE CONE 2. INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING ULTRAVIOLE T AND X-RADIATION FROM THE SUN 3. RADIO TRANSMITTER 4. HERMETICALLY SEALED CHAMBER FOR LAIKA SATELLITE LAUNCHING VEHICLES Type Sputnik Sputnik Designation CH-9 CH-10 SOVIET ICBM T-3 Length (fl) 125.6 112.8 Diameter (max. ft) 16.24 211,000 16.24 INTERCONTINENTAL 88.5 Stages Weight 11.5 AND 1st Stage Thrust 2nd Stage Thrust 3rd Stage Thrust 3 451,000 264,000 77,000 3 517,000 268,000 78,100 Exhousl Speed f.p.s. T-3 Status 9850 INTERMEDIATE RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILES 160,000 3 484,000 268,000 78,100 Thermo Operotional Nuclear (M-104) ICBM Warhead 108 16 350,000 3 12 176,000 3 Second Version ICBM T-3A 91.5 517,000 268,000 78,000 9840 Thermo Operational Nuclear ICBM T-JA 101.5 16 396,000 3 122 Second IRBM Version T- 4-A IRBM T-2 IRBM T-4 (M-102) IRBM IRBM IRBM Golem 2 CH-18 T-1 10.2 231,000 3 264,000 264,000 9380 Experimental 65.5 8.5 100,000 2 268,000 78,100 8365 Atomic Operational 56.1 7.2 70,850 2 170,400 52,800 10,000 Experimental 7.2 5.9 74,800 2 242,000 71,500 7900 Experimental 57 42.3 62 5.64 41,300 37,850 77,000 99,000 7550 Production 78,100 6525 Operational 5 space journal �thoroughly trained prior to making the flight; great probe into the third dimension. it was gradually accustomed to protracted many years the biological approach of Soviet stays in the small, hermetically sealed cham­ medical scientists has been to utilize dogs as ber, to the space suit, and to the attached test subjects. impulse converters that record physiological many authorities in the US would prefer to functions. l l 20 work with these animals instead of the un­ pounds, which included all the equipment, the predictable rhesus monkeys which spearhead dog, and the power source. Next to the 2500- our own space flight biological programs. Sputnik ll's weight was For This research has paid off, and pound Sputnik Ill, it is the largest and heaviest Professor G. A. Chebotarez of the Lenin­ Earth probe to be developed and placed in grad Institute of Theoretical Astronomy pre­ orbit. sented a paper in February 1957 titled "Cos­ Soviet experimentation with dogs in rockets mic Boomerang," which gave technical has been going on for a considerable lennth details on a method of placing payloads of of time, commencing with a series of nine from 110 to 220 pounds into a lunar orbit. dogs, all of which were subjected to the It environment of our upper atmosphere and actively pursued since its inception and that the fringe of Space. Of these initial nine, three it is currently approaching the hardware stage. (Albina, Kozavka and Malyshka) made the An elliptical orbit around the Moon is planned ascent more than once. Subsequent tests is believed that this project has for Project Boomerang. been The Russian lunar utilized 12 dogs with many rockets containing probe will probably be equipped with tele­ two dogs per rocket. vision as well as motion picture cameras to Heights of 68 miles were reached with this twin biological combi­ photograph the nation; shortly after free fall from maximum relay the pictures back to altitude, one of the dogs was ejected. suggest that the probe will be "radiotele­ After an ascent to about 50 miles the dog's Moon's directed" from Earth. I. surface Earth. Reports A prominent Soviet parachute equipment was activated; taking scientist, place three seconds after ejection. particular aspect of the program. The sec­ and then S. Hlebtsevich, is in charge of this ond dog was ejected at altitudes of between One study in which the Soviets are par­ 23 and 28 miles; its parachute opening was ticularly interested is the determination of timed to inflate at a height of approximately what causes the appearance and disappear­ two and one/half miles. Professor Pokrovskii, ance of craters on the Moon. director of the Institute of Experimental Avia­ S. Y. Ziggel also wants to investigate the tion Medicine of the Academy of Sciences of white cloud phenoma which are to be found the USSR, stated that all dogs used in the in certain areas of the Moon. experiments were recovered successfully. The dogs were trained to endure strain and to resist vibration; the Soviets stated that the dogs behaved normally when ejected and Astronomer The question he raises is: "Do Moon quakes occur; and, if so, do such catastrophes cause crater changes and the mysterious clouds?" Russian scientist Egerov's paper entitled that they bore up well under the weightless "Some Questions on the Dynamics of Flights state which followed. to the Moon" gives some idea of how closely The data recorded indicate that the condition of the animals was the Russians are studying the subject. satisfactory throughout the experiment. paper he reviews the many fundamental ques­ In this The Russian biological achievements are tions and theories of flight to the Moon. The only forerunners of many experiments that classification of unpowered trajectories, cir­ Man is one of the next cumlunar flights, and the possibility of peri­ steps in their program, and it is extremely odic circumflight of the Moon and Earth are likely that Soviet scientists will have man in Space shortly. Bio-satellite experimentation examined. with human occupants represents the next the dispersion of instrumentation upon impact must be conducted. 6 space iournal The question of impacting on the Moon and also the important question of �0 are discussed. As many as 600 trajectories were calculated by the author in his paper. Other Soviet scientists have considered the establishment of base camps on the Moon's surface in the light of all the difficulties which will beset such a program. They have con­ sidered the need of frequently sending rocket ships to that body to support a base. The clothing and space suits for participants in such a venture have been designed; their space suits being (according to the press and photographic releases) developed, as in the United States, from high-altitude aircraft suits, and experimentation in pressure chambers. "Laika" is shown before being installed inside Sputnik II (A still from the film, "First Soviet Earth Satellites"}. General view of the scientific apparatus in Sputnik II. �on the Moon would include the search for on atmosphere, determinations of surface conditions, and experiments to obtain geo­ logical data. Soviet scientists have devised o scheme whereby the Moon may be explored by a small unmanned tank. The "tankette labora­ tory" would be landed on the lunar surface by the probe rocket, the former vehicle being radio controlled from Earth. Equipment in the mobile laboratory would include a tele­ vision camera which would transmit details of the Moon's surface to observers on Earth. Other experiments conducted with this device would be geological sampling, gravity and temperature determinations, etc. In the background of the Russian Moon program is the Soviet work on guided missiles. In this field they have constructed, and have launched, and have in production, every Apparatus to study so/or radiation, installed in Sputnik II. type of missile that is known from underwoter­ to-surfoce through the missile spectrum to surface-to-surface. Their progress in the ICBM and IRBM field is well known since test M. K. Pikhanizov some eight years ago wrote a report on a Moon rocket which would weigh approximately 1,000 tons and attain a velocity of 11 kilometers per second. The vehicle would carry a crew of two over a circumlunar trajectory and then return to Earth. A modification to this particular pro­ gram would result in a vehicle being launched from an Earth-orbiting space station. Such a vehicle would weigh approximately l 00 tons and would take off with a velocity of 3.5 kilo­ meters per second. Some reports even sug­ gest that design has already begun on the former is 60 meters; it has a maximum diameter of 15 meters. vehicle and that its length The overall weight would be 1,000 tons, and it would have 20 motors which could build up 350 million horsepower. The Russian literature has fully covered lunar landings with all their attendant difficul­ ties-take-off from this type of planetary environment, crew safety, and the various maneuvers of bringing orbiting around the Moon and back to Earth. 8 space journal vehicles Studies The dog "Moduitso··, shown in the foreground, supposedly hos "iust returned safely from the flight." This instrument and onimol container section of a Russian experimental rocket was reported to have been parachuted from a height of 212 kilometers. /From "Pravda") �Another "experienced" Russian "astronaut" by the name of "Malyshka" and its space capsule (Photo by S. Gurory) launching sites for these vehicles hove been Ironies and test equipment needed to check pinpointed and ballistic Aights of their major out a missile is a major engineering feat in weapons apparently hove been tracked by itself. radar from Turkey. Launching bases, missile plants, missile schools, missile test centers and all the attendant facilities needed for experi­ mentation and production ore to be found all over the USSR. Quantity production is ap­ parent, and we hove no reason to doubt the quality of the products. The strength of Soviet advances mode in technological areas may be illustrated by the number of production or operational missiles in evidence. In the IRBM category alone In the US Atlas ICBM, for example, there ore over 300,000 separate ports. To assume that the technological progress of the USSR in missilry is based only on the World War II accomplishments of Germany is dangerous and false, leading only to a state of seriously underrating the ability of their scientists. Basic research is being ac­ complished in a very scholarly manner which may be seen by the publication of reports from that country as translated by various seven vehicles ore believed to be available, organizations in the US. More translations and of these probably more than half ore ore needed, and it is hoped that the long The design of a missile system waiting period, which invariably follows the (as any missile engineer will confirm) is a receipt of Soviet technical documents, con be complicated and exacting procedure requiring reduced. operational. the coordination of many highly qualified Although the Russians wisely ovoid giving Thousands of com­ advance data on the launching dotes of IGY plicated components must be integrated to participation vehicles, and hence avoid the insure compatibility, and the necessary elec- embarrassing spectacle of aborted launch- scientists and engineers. 9 space journal �COMPARISON OF AMERICAN AND RUSSIAN BALLISTIC MISSILES 100-+-------------------------,r-------------- I I w w V) z V) 50 z w 0 0 GOlEM 2 T7 T2 T3 COMET 2 COMET 1 T3B Tl T5 GOLl!M 1 T5B u S S R 0 2000 1000 3000 6000 5000 4000 JOO-+---------------- -----------------------------• w w .... Q V) �o -I--------. z :::E 0 REDSTONE SERGEANT ATLAS JUPITER PERSHING TITIAN CORPORAl HONEST JOHN US A ► 2000 ► 1000 RANGE (MllES) 10 space journal ► 3000 ► .(OOO ► 5000 ► 6000 �Sputnik Ill 1. MAGNETOMETER 2. PHOTO-MULTIPLIERS FOR THE REGISTRATION OF THE CORPUSCULAR RADIATION OF THE SUN 3. SOLAR BATTERIES 4. DEVICE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF PHOTONS IN COSMIC RAYS 5. MAGNETIC AND IONIZATION MANOMETERS 6. ION CATCHERS 7. ELECTROSTATIC FLUXMETER 8. MASS SPECTROMETRIC TUBE 9. DEVICE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF HEAVY NUCLEI IN COSMIC RAYS ings, they have given details of the experi­ ments to be conducted. These include: temperature, pressure, Other places visited by this group included the Television Research Institute at Leningrad 1. Structure parameters of the upper at­ mosphere, lo. DEVICE FOR MEASURING THE INTENSITY OF PRIMARY COSMI RADIATION 11. PICK-UPS FOR THE REGIS­ TRATION OF MICROMETERS and composition. 2. Movements of the upper atmosphere. 3. Study of the electrical properties of the upper atmosphere {ionosphere). and the Television Broadcasting Station at Moscow. on two 8 me wide channels. ning indicates that 5. Study of the ultraviolet part of the Sun's spectrum. 6. Study of the solid composition of in­ terplanetary material (micrometeorites). 60,000 Current plan­ kilometers of wide band microwave circuits will be available by 1960. 4. Study of cosmic radiation. The latter organization broadcasts When this rate of progress is related to the known status of this country in these fields some ten years ago, it may be seen that a great deal of research has been successfully accomplished. 7. Study of corpuscular rays from the Sun. Education is the key to Soviet progress, A recent tour of the USSR by US engineers and this particular basis has been firmly es­ attending a radio engineers' convention in that country resulted in their obtaining first hand knowledge of Soviet progress in this field. Among •he facilities visited was Pulkovo (some ten miles �outh of Leningrad) where o radio astronomy station is located. length of the radio telescope is The focal 50 and it hos a diameter 0f 75 meters. meters It has a tablished. From grade school through uni­ versity, great emphasis hos been given to scientific training. This approach hos re­ sulted in the graduation of these scholars whose efforts today ore successfully keeping the USSR ahead of us in the race to the Moon. Only a complete overhaul of our own paraboloid section and l.Ses flat mirrors, each school system, programmed to concentrate on of which is adjustable to ,-elate these to the the scientific areas in which we ore deficient, theoretical contour. can result in the negation of this lead. II space journal �SPACE SYMPOSIUM the educational challenge By Freder ck Frederick I. Ordwoy, Ill, was educated in the geoscientific and geophysical fields at Har­ vard University and the University of Paris (Sorbonne). In Fronce he received four certifi­ cates for work with the Loborotoire de Physique de I' Atmosphere. He hos also studied specialized courses at other European universities and holds diplomas from the US Air University. He hos lec­ tured widely in both the US and Europe on rocketry, high altitude research and space flight. He is the author of dozens of articles on these and related subjects, At present, he is vice­ president of the Notional Research and Develop­ ment Corporation. One of the most widely discussed subjects in the US today is education. For the first time in memory the nation has begun to think in terms as well America churned of the quality of the "educated man" as the quantiry (of which we in are manifestly proud) of graduates out by our schools and universities. Ordway. 111 cation for a brilliant minority. We tend to forget the supreme debt that civilization owes to the great intellects of science, the arts, and society, and unless we create the climate for such talents to nurture, our way of life is sure to wither. On the other hand, we suffer from the fetish of insisting on thousands of bright, shiny and often gaudy new schools with little or no thought for the excellence (or even living standards, for that matter) of the teaching staffs within them. It has been far from obvious to many that a school or a university can be no better than its teachers. The phy­ sical aspects may be important, but they alone do not provide the climate of scholarship so necessary in a creative society. Great teach­ ers, rather than great buildings, are neces­ sarily the cornerstone of any system that calls itself educational. Although there is much about our system to justify pride, forward-looking educational au­ thorities have realized there are many short­ comings in our schools; and strong efforts are In the paragraphs that follow we shall cover various general factors applicable to US and Soviet education, giving particular at­ tention to scientific aspects and implications. happily being made to improve them. The availability of scientific and engineer­ ing talent is a crucial factor in today's world of ICBM's, H-bombs, and artificial satellites. All major nations are aware of the importance to their security of technically trained man­ power, and at least some have well-planned programs designed to encourage youth to enter scientific fields of endeavor. True, there is. no sea ·city of "experts" who, while worshiping the status quo, defend their achievements and misguidedly think that everything American has to be best. These people are bound to fight improvement pro­ grams every inch of the way. Yet, it is clear to most of the thinking community that some­ thing has to be done, and done quickly, if coming generations are to yield leaders capa­ ble of maintaining America's position in the world. Our educational problems stem from many causes. On the one hand we have been far too eager to achieve a mediocre education of the masses to the detriment of superior edu- 12 I. space iournal The US is the most important example in the world of a nation without a definitive educa­ tional program in science or technology. Some comparative figures are informative in this context. In 1954 American industry needed 30,000 new engineers, but only 18,000 were graduated that year from our colleges and universities. This shortage may or may not �Please [enter] [renew] my subscription: For one year (4 issues) at 2.00 ···················································--····························································· Namo Street Zon.e City SPACE JOURNAL State Titlo or position Company Also enter the follo·wing additional subscription at the Gift Rate of only $1.60 for 1 yr. 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To look at it from another direction, of the For example, at least half of the nation's high 250 physicists graduated in 1954 only half schools do not offer courses in chemistry, and entered into the field of physics itself. A situa­ more than half do not give courses in physics. tion characterized by shortages has continued In the period since through to 1958; and while it seems somewhat of high school students studying algebra less aggravated today we probably will con­ dropped from 56 percent to 24.6 percent. tinue to lock highly trained scientists for many Geometry students dropped from 27.4 per­ years to come. cent to 1900 the percentage 11.6 percent in this period; and One prominent educator hos noted "in physics students declined from 19 percent to school we work so hard with the youngsters who find learning difficult or who resist an is the feeling of many key educators that at education, that we fail adequately to deal with the sparks of genius when they appear." He went on to say that "our greatest failures in the schools of America are those youngsters 4.5 percent. Perhaps even more discouraging least half a million high school students are taught mathematics by teachers not qualified to give instruction in the subject. Some 300,000 students ore exposed to physics by who have the ability to become the creative nonqualified instructors. leaders of tomorrow. of the future in science, industry . . . must be A nationwide survey by the Notional Edu­ cation Association shows that only 36 percent challenged to do their best, not merely to be of persons who prepare to teach chemistry better than the average." and who receive their certificates intend going The real major leaders One of our main jobs is to select potential talent early in life, and to nourish it carefully so that it may grow or achieve maximum de­ velopment. Our leading educators are be­ ginning to emphasize, more than ever before, into the teaching field. Furthermore, less than half those qualified to teach general science, biology, physics, and mathematics will actually teach. This situation has been described by many as "tragic." One inter­ the importance of obtaining more and better esting, though dismal, sidelight was shown by instructors; and they warn us not to rely on fancy new buildings and unplanned "crash programs" to achieve our educational aims. a survey demonstrating that the difficult sub­ teachers qualified in such subjects as English, Reduced to its essentials, an educational system consists of: (1) schools, (2) students, and (3) teachers. A knowledge of construc­ tion techniques permits us to build an accepta­ ble school. The supply of students seems both plentiful and inexhaustable. Teachers, on the other hand, represent an entirely different commodity-one difficult to create, by no means plentiful, and decisively important. music, social science, and speech! We are troubled to learn that competent teachers are becoming harder and harder to get. There has been at least a 50 percent drop during the past five years in the number of college graduates whose educational pro­ grams have prepared them for high school science teaching; and of the relatively few persons qualified to instruct scientific subjects, only about half make teaching their career. ject of mathematics is often being taught by Physics and chemistry classes ore often taught by specialists in agriculture, physical education, or social science! Furthermore, it has been shown that only 148 of 303 chemistry classes in 30 states surveyed were being taught by teachers who had majored in chemistry! The implications of these figures should shock even the most complacent of an indifferent public. Coupled with this, we find that today well over 50 percent fewer persons receive cer­ tificates to teach science as compared with only five years ago (the comparison would be even more startling if longer time period were presented.) About 51 percent fewer students receive mathematics certificates than only five years ago. 13 space journal �Estimates made for the year 19 56 show that our schools were faced with a shortage of 6000 science teachers; and at the same time only 4000 were being graduated (out of which only half, as we saw, actually expected to go into teaching.) Thus, at a critical period in the history of science 2000 teachers were trying unsuccessfully to do what 6000 would normally be expected to do. Naturally, such figures as these have evoked comment from authorities in the scien­ tific and teaching fields. One important edu­ cator has said that "the staggering deficiency in scientists and engineers that confronts us will spell disaster to the American people un­ less we take action at once." Incidentally, these words were uttered three years ago, and it is discouraging to see that relatively little progress has been made since that time. Rise in Science Pupils Changes in enrollments in mathematics and science in public secondary schools in the United States (grades 9-12 ) and related data, 1948-49 and 1956-67. Item Typical Subject Enrollments 1948-49 Grode 1956-57 Per Cent of Increase General Science ... .. .. .. .. .... . .. 9 Biology .. .. ...... .. ..... ........ 10 l1 Chemistry Physics . ... ...... ... .. ........ ... 12 Other Science ....................9-12 1,074,000 996,000 412,000 291,000 155,000 1,518,000 1,430,000 520,000 310,000 265,000 41.3 43.6 26.2 6.5 70.9 Total .........................9-12 2,928,000 4,043,000 38.1 Elementary Algebra ... ...... .. .. .. . 9 Intermediate Algebra ............... 11 General Mathematics ... .... .... .. . 9 Plane Geometry ......... .. ...... .. 10 Solid Geometry ... .... .. .... ... ... 12 Trigonometry ........... ......... . 13 Other Mathematics ................9-12 1,042,000 372,000 650,000 599,000 94,000 l 09,000 91,000 1,518,00 484,000 976,000 788,000 160,000 200,000 275,000 45.7 30.l 50.2 31.6 70.2 83.5 202.2 Total .........................9-12 Population Age 14 Age 15 ............................. Age 16 ............................. Age 17 ............................ . Age 14-17 .......................... Enrollment Grode 9 ...........................• Grade 10 .......................... . Grade 11 .......................... . Grade 12 ........................... Grade 9-12 ........................ . 2,957,000 4,401,000 48.8 2,126,000 2,140,000 2,231,000 2,206,000 8,703,000 2,556,000 2,393,000 2,292,000 2,300,000 9,541,000 20.2 11.8 2.7 4.3 9.6 1,641,000 1,491,000 1,242,000 1,026,000 5,399,000 2,254,000 1,933,000 1,513,000 1,263,000 6,963,000 37.4 29.6 21.8 23.1 29.0 Source: Offerings ond Enrollments in Science and Mothematics in Public High Schools {Office of Education Pamphlet No. 120). 14 space journal .. �Moscow University students on their woy to a lecture at the University. Another educator cautioned that "science hos necessary to on understanding of the times in become a neglected subject. We hove not which they will live and work." prepared enough high school students in the sciences to meet future needs." A still more astonishing warning come from Dr. M. M. Boring of the Engineering Manpower Com­ mission who said, "It is on incredible and dangerous paradox that in the age of science and engineering, secondary school interest and activity in science and mathematics, the necessary prerequisites to technical careers, ore decreasing proportionately.... This trend must be reversed, not only because our needs for vital and professional personnel ore bound to increase, and must somehow be met, but also because our future citizens must hove at least the fundamental background The deficiency of science teachers hos led the American Association for the Advance­ ment of Science to set up a $300,000 grant to study the shortage and the problems it poses. The final report resulting from the study showed that in one recent year about 250 persons were graduated from American colleges and universities capable and pre­ pared to teach high school physics. Of these only half went into teaching. The situation was shown to be very similar in other areas of science and in mathematics. A number of reasons ore given for this: l. We were faced with on increasing population, making greater demands on our schools. This was coupled with the fact that relotively few 15 - ·' - :J journal �teachers were coming available (partially due to the low birth rote of the 1930's). 2. We must consider the extremely low salaries paid to teachers. This fact turned potential science teachers ta other, mare lucrative, fields. types of administrative devices to insure that 3. During recent years the high school hos changed from on educational institution whose primary function was to train relatively few students ta pass college entrance examinations prior to going to college lo o system designed to give terminal training to students not going on to follow university careers. through university life. 4. It hos been frequently poinled out that many of the persons leaching sciences in schools ore in­ adequately prepared to give instruction; such o situation can completely blunt the scientific inclinations of the student, or al least hamper his development. It seems evident that, in order to improve are attended, "dean's lists", and other such instruments as are believed neces­ sary to take care of our young as they pass All this has resulted in the lamentable fact that the American student matures in his university at a far slower rate than the European does in his. The average university in continental Eu­ rope takes little or no responsibility for the life of the student. There are generally no dormitories or other special houses for stu­ dents to live in. Student unions, fraternities, dining halls, and similar activities may very well be absent; and, of course, there are unlikely to be college athletic facilities, sports scientific teaching, we must draw from the arenas, and so forth. ranks of college graduates who have studied student in Europe is a far more gruelling ex­ science but who may not have received formal courses in educational techniques. Such peo­ ple know their science even though they may not have been trained in education. logical to believe that qualified It is scientist­ teachers are preferable, even though they lack educational courses, to the hundreds of inadequately trained science instructors pres­ ent in our schools today. Fortunately, there perience. Therefore, being a One must forage for his own, so to speak, but the immature are quickly weeded out from the mature. In Europe one is unlikely to see professors taking attendance; it is entirely up to the student if he does or does not attend a lec­ ture. Nor are the universities interested in his personal life, his finances, his habits of study, and his home environment. are responsible indi­ viduals and organizations who have become If he pays, he can attend courses; if he does not pay, he cannot attend courses. It is his own re­ deeply concerned with finding and cultivating sponsibility to attend classes. as much scientific and engineering talent as his final exams, he gets credit towards a possible. What the future holds in store for American education in science may be largely left in the hands of such groups as the Scien­ tific Manpower Commission, Office of Scientific Personnel of the National Research Council, Engineering Manpower Commission on the Engineers Joint Counsel, the Chief of Engi­ neering Education of the United States Office of Education, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and educational committees and panels attached to industrial organizations and scientific societies. 16 classes If he passes degree, regardless of whether or not he at­ tended classes. There are no warning notes, and mid-semester grades on general course work prior to the final examination are rare or absent. The European university assumes it is edu­ cating an adult, not a child. The emphasis is on learning, not on techniques of teaching, as was pointed out by Harvard's Professor Howard Mumford Jones several years ago in a leading university alumni publication. It is assumed that if the European student does There is an admitted and vast difference not take advantage of the great educational between the European and American con­ advantages given him, he is a fool, and if he cept of everyday life at the university. Ameri­ wants to be one it is entirely his own business. can universities feel they are educating par­ The American system, tially grown children, and accordingly often spends much time and effort trying to keep go to extraordinary lengths to care for them. him from being one. Thus we find elaborate rules of conduct, all in Europe it is universally assumed that a space journal on the other hand, As Jones has said, ". �N. s. F. Research Grants National Science Foundation Research Grants by Fields of Science Fiscal years 1952-56 Field Biological and medical sciences: 18 Anthropological 70 Developmental Environmental . . . . . . . 82 ........... 75 Genetic . . . . . . . . 181 Molecular Psychobiology . . . . . . . 134 Regulatory . . . . . . . . 215 Systematic . . . . . . . . . . 177 General . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 992 Mathematics, physical, and sciences: Astronomy ........ ...... Chemistry Earth Sciences . . . . . ....... Engineering Mathematics . . . . . . . . ........ Physics Sociophysical . . . . . . . . General ............ . Total research grants • s Total Fiscal year Amount Number 1957 Number 184,800 586,182 746,860 994,700 2,748,730 1,659,550 2,921,145 1,399,080 721,510 17 32 65 41 84 54 114 89 31 S11,962,557 527 s s Amount Number s Amount 338,300 968,932 1,524,060 1,653,950 4,533,680 2,442,650 4,791,545 2,105,655 1,224,710 153,500 382,750 777,200 659,250 1,784,950 783, l 00 1,870,400 706,575 503,200 35 102 147 116 265 188 329 266 71 7,620,925 1,519 $19,583,482 engineering 75 254 102 181 128 195 8 944 1,936 1,261,800 3,106,200 1,318,275 2,008,700 1,553,200 3,036,400 105,100 7,000 33 147 54 103 64 53 l2 4 453,900 2,653,700 770,150 1,369,950 1,038,900 1,348,300 154,100 119,000 108 401 156 284 192 248 20 5 1,715,700 5,759,900 2,088,425 3,378,650 2,592, l 00 4,384,700 259,200 126,000 $12,396,675 $24,359,232 470 997 $ 7,908,000 S 15,528,925 1,414 2,933 $20,304,675 $39,888,157 university . . . is a mature intellectual enter­ prise primarily concerned with preserving and extending knowledge and maintaining the great professional classes . . . without which no culture can survive." In general it is far easier to gain access to an American university than to enter one on the Continent. A great many reasons exist for this, but they are beyond the scope of this article. However, I recall that when I first entered the University of Paris' Faculty of Sciences, I had to establish that my previous American college education was equivalent to the French Baccalaureate, or secondary system. I was perhaps lucky to have passed this and to have received additionally several credits toward an advanced degree. I re- member a number of American college graduates whose work was not, in the eyes of the French authorities, considered of sufficient significance to warrant the all-important "equivalence." Though this may seem exag­ gerated, it at least affords a basis for comparison. When we think of the dozens of diversion­ ary activities associated with American uni­ versity life (being invited into the proper fraternity, getting on various athletic teams, participating in club life, dances, dating, etc.), we often may wonder how academic progress is made. Our "normal," well-rounded, over­ protected student is the average student, one whose extracurricular activities may often be more spectacular than his academic record. 17 space journal �He, and not the "brain," is the hero of the US campus. Most of these outside distractions do not exist in the continental European counterpart, at least not to the extent as in America. Perhaps the great question that America has to answer is how it can mature its under­ graduate student body, how it can dispense with its long-extended adolescence. That is the challenge that the European education gives the American system and is the particu­ lar challenge posed by the enormous progress of Soviet education today. The roots of a nation's scientific and technological greatness are found in its educational system. Our schools and colleges must produce the leaders of tomorrow's world of science. Our system must become second to none if our way of life is to survive. Russian education is similar, but by no means identical, to that of continental Europe. The basic educational landmark in Russia is the ten-year secondary school, which handles children of the ages 7 to 17. During this period, a student would study ten years of Russian langauge and literature, a like amount of mathematics, five years of physics, four years of chemistry, six years of biology and botany, six years of geography, seven years of history, a year of astronomy, and various practical subjects such as metal working and engineering drawing. During the later years of the secondary education, the student is generally in class seven hours a day and has five hours of homework. With a 12-hour day, the student must also count on a 6-day week and a 10-month academic year. It need hardly be pointed out that the US system is far more relaxed than this extremely difficult academic grind to which Soviet children are exposed. Another thing one should not forget is that a student is financed through his education by the state, and this, of course, allows Russia to pick out from the whole mass of its people the best available minds. The above-average students get the best training, while those of below• average abilities are weeded out rapidly so as not to pull the average down. There is ap­ parently no acute teacher shortage in Russia, 18 space journal a fact which is not surprising considering the material benefits and prestige they derive from their career. It is· known that since 1927 the Russian educational system has grown by fantastic leaps, starting with 11 million arts and sci­ ences students and numbering now 30 million. In the higher educational institutions they started in 1927 with a 169,000 enrollment and now have more than two million. In the secondary system the courses given are far more complete and difficult than in the US. For example, the Soviets teach algebra in the sixth grade and calculus starts in the ninth. A typical seventh grade student in the USSR is likely to have zoology, anatomy and physiology of man, mathematics, history, geography, biology, Russian language and literary reading, chemistry, foreign language, physical education, technical drawing, prac­ tical shop work, agriculture, and sex hygiene on his study program. The actual secondary school graduates per year ore 1,500,000 versus 1,300,000 in the US. Dr. Laurence G. Derthick, United States Commissioner of Education, has said that "it would be tragic ... if the evolution of edu­ cation in the USSR should be considered as any cause to question our basic concepts of freedom in education. Rather, it should challenge every American to re-examine the extent to which we as a people support our democratic system of education . . . . It should, in fact, challenge Americans to take new interests in meeting the needs of our schools, colleges, and universities as they serve the purposes of our society: freedom, peace, and the fullest development of the individual." It is generally understood that to achieve the maximum benefit from a nation's total brain power resources, outstanding talent must be identified at an early age, encour­ aged to progress from the time it is identified, and above all be given the best conceivable training. Reports strongly suggest that the embryo scientist is far more readily identified in the USSR than in the US, and that when he is identified something is done about him. Outstanding students are pushed ahead ... �Cramming for an exam in one of the rooms ol Moscow Un iversity's student dormitories (Photo by D. Sholomovich) rapidly and are not forced to follow the Republics set up the following: "It 1s the duty pace set by their intellectual inferiors. of every school chiId: Perhaps the most significant thing about l. To acquire knowledge persistently in order to the Soviet system is its very hard schedule become on educated and cultured citizen and and the fact that all students are constant pressure to excel. under The leisurely pace typical in our American schools cannot be tolerated in the Soviet Union. As has been pointed out frequently in recent years, school teachers and college professors form part of the Soviet social and intellectual elite, an almost diametrically opposite situation to that which prevails in the US. With a hard sched· ule, excellent teachers enjoying top prestige, and good facilities, it is not difficult to under­ stand why Soviet progress in education is evoking such interest today. The rules of conduct applicable to pupils 1n the Soviet Union are interesting and informa­ tive. In 1943 the Soviet People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federation of Socialist lo be of the greatest possible service to his country. 2. To study diligently, to be punctual in attend­ ance, and not arrive late ot classes. 3. To obey the instructions of the school director and the teachers without question. 4. To arrive at school with oil the necessary text­ books and writing materials; to hove everything ready for the lesson before the teacher arrives. 5. To come to school clean, well groomed, and neatly dressed. 6. To keep his place in the classroom clean and tidy. 7. To enter the classroom and toke his place immediately after the bell rings; to enter and leave the classroom during the lesson only with the teacher's permission. 8. To sit upright during the lesson, not leaning on his elbows and not slouching; to listen atten­ tively to the teacher's explanations and the 19 space journal �other pupils' answers, and not to talk or let his 17. To obey his parents, to help them to toke care of his small brothers and sisters. attention stray to other things. 9. To rise when the teacher or the director enters 18. To maintain cleanliness and order in rooms, to keep his clothes, shoes, and bed neat and or leaves the room. l 0. To stand at attention when answering tidy. the teacher; to sit down only with the teacher·s 19. To carry his student"s record book with him permission; to raise his hand if he wishes to always, to guard it carefully, never handing it answer or ask a question. over to anyone else, and to present it upon 11. To toke accurate notes in his assignment book request of the teachers or the school director. of homework scheduled for the next lesson, 20. To cherish the honor of his school and class, and defend it os his own." and to show these notes to his parents; to do all the homework unoided. 12. To be respectful to the school director ond teochers; when meeting them, to greet them with a polite bow; boys should also raise their hots. 13. To be polite to his elders, to behove modestly Russian accomplishments in both the pri­ mary and secondary educational fields ore impressive. The best results of their efforts move on into the universities, whose output is also impressive. For example, we know they and respectfully in school, on the street and in produce one and a half million scientists and public engineers out of two and a half million gradu­ places. 14. Not to use coarse expressions, not to smoke, not to gamble for money or for any other objects. 15. To protect school property; lo be careful of his personal things and the belongings of his comrades. 16. To be attentive and considerate of old people, small children, the weak and sick; to give them a seat on the trolley or make way for them on the street, being helpful to them in every way. ates. In the US we get about the same num­ ber of technical graduates from twice the number of college graduates, so the per­ centage of science and engineering output here is much lower than in Russia. On a yearly basis, the Russians produce between two and three times the number of scientists and engi­ neers that the US does. The US awards about the some number of doctoral degrees as the ' ' .. Moscow University's swimming pool. /Photo by D. Sholomovich) �Soviets, but in our case nearly 2 ½ to 1 ore weighted in favor of the arts while in the USSR about 3 to 1 are in favor of engineering and science. We know that while in Russia technically-trained students are graduating at a higher rate than in the US, there is a de­ cline in graduates from American universities taking place (corresponding with this increase in Russia). Dr. Alvin C. Eurich, vice president and director of the Ford Fund for the Advance­ ment of Education, made the following com­ ment after returning from Russia recently: "To me the accomplishments in the field of educa­ tion which Russia has mode in a relatively short time are much more frightening than announcements that come from Russia con­ cerning atomic or hydrogen bombs, or guided missiles. From our point of view there is much one could criticize. There 1s no ques­ tion, however, about the speed with which Russia has moved in the past and is now moving with its educational system. As much os we dislike to place our educational de­ velopments ,n competition we have to be realistic." Last November the United States Office of Education released an excellent report en­ titled "Education in the USSR". The conclu­ sions of this report are given in the belief that it is enormously important to understand what an important American body of educa­ tional authorities thinks about the situation. The information hos been published in a two hundred and twenty-six page report which represents over two years of work. " Text of Conclusions of the U. S. Report on Soviet Education Millions of school-oge children, voriety in rociol slroins and culturol lroditions, diversily in climote and topography, concentrated center of population and sparsely populated remote areas ore some of the foctors affecting educotionol policy in the U.S.S.R. and in the the goal of education is to meet the needs of the slate. Constitutional representative democracy characterizes the philosophical base on which the people of the U.S.A. govern themselves. In theory and in practice, the individual is of surpassing worth and the goal of education is the development of each person as an individual with freedom and with opportunity to choose his life's work in his best interests. Many Entities in Soviet The Soviet Union is on accretion of separate entities on which there is an overlay of Russian language and Communist porty control. As a matter of educational policy, the U.S.S.R. one-party stale capitalites on the linguistic and cultural heritage of minority groups which resist assimilation. The U.S.A. is an amalgamation of heterogeneous nationalities electing to establish their homes in the United Stales, and of native-born popula­ tion. The democratic educational systems in the U.S.A. are crucibles in which many nationalities fuse in language and in culture. Neither country has o notional ministry lo control education. In the U.S.S.R. the Communist party, con­ sisting of about 3 per cent of the total population, is the minority group which directly and indirectly controls education through a mechanism which cen­ tralizes power at the top. In the U.S.A. control of education is vested in the people in each of the slates al the local and state levels. The U.S. Office of Education provides leadership­ not control. It encourages understanding of and responsibility for policy development, management ond operation of local and state educational systems by the people themselves. It promotes ogreements on common goals, and odministers grants in specific fields ond conducts educational research. On the basis of research findings, it provides outhoritotive information to the profession, the states and the general public. Differences in Scope Noted Soviet educational-cultural planned !>udgets embrace a range of activities which include on the one hand schools and institutions of higher learning, and on the other, clubs, rodio, press, television, movies, thealres, and the like. Educational expenditures reported in the U.S.A. relate exclusively to schools and institutions of higher learning. Education as it 1s understood in the U.S.S.R. hos no exoct porollel in the U.S.A. Preschool programs­ nurseries and kindergartens--ore on integral part of U.S.A. the national economy of the U.S.S.R. Nurseries are health centers for the care of children and the releose The principle of free and universal educolion has been odopted as o notional policy and is in process of implementation in the U.S.S.R. today. The some of the time of mothers for work ond other activities in the interests of the Soviet Stole. Kindergartens ore educational centers providing similar child core and principle is traditional with the people of the U.S.A., who hove had it in practice for generations. similar release of lhe mothers' time for productive activity deemed oppropriole by the Sovie! slale. Diametrically opposed are the philosophical bases from which educational theory, programs and pro­ cedures have evolved in the two countries. Authori­ In lhe U.S.A. child care establishments ore social welfare centers, including in their progroms child core assistance to those mothers who ore breadwinners os tarianism characterizes the Soviet philosophical base; well as homemakers. Nursery schools provide programs 21 space journal �to serve the health, social and educational needs of 4 and 5 year-olds. They are partly or entirely inde• pendent of the public school system, though an increas­ ing number cooperate with the public school system and receive assistance in staff training, counseling and other services. Kindergartens are an integral part of the educational systems in the U.S.A. School Six Doys a Week General primary-secondary education in the U.S.S.R. consists of a prescribed ten-year, six-day-o-week pro­ gram of studies subordinated to the interests of the regime in the formation of a Communist society. In the U.S.A. the prescribed elementary curricula and the secondary curricula of prescribed ond elective courses extend over a twelve-year period, five days a week, in the interests of the development of educated citizens able to contribute as individuals and in groups to their own welfare and to that of society as a whole. In the U.S.S.lt pupils are expected to participate in extracurricular work-activities sometimes known as "voluntary-compulsory" programs. These work-activities are centrally controlled and intergrated with the primary-secondary curricula for the benefit of the slate. In the U.S.A. extracurricular activities ore school activi­ ties which usually develop in keeping with the interests of the children. In general, they originate spontane• ously and result in educational dividends for the children. On their own initiative, youngsters who have reached the minimum age for work-generally 16 years for non-hazardous occupations-may engage in paid port-time work after school hours and in paid sum mer employment. Student Has Little Choice The U.S.S.R. party-state aims to determine, through its notional planning mechanism, the skills which are needed ond the proportion of the student population to be trained in each skill. The more brilliant student in the U.S.S.R. has some individual freedom of choice; the slate retains control over curriculum content and methods of instruction and distribution of students among academic fields, adjusting all to suit prevailing political doctrine and current manpower requirements of the Soviet economy. Political indoctrination normally is included in course content throughout the curriculum-in the natural and social sciences, in language ond literature, in the arts ond in other disciplines. In addition, specific courses in the fundamentals of the prevailing political doctrine are required of students regularly enrolled in institu­ tions of higher learning. Students are expected to interpret their studies from the point of view enunciated by the state. Natural sciences and mathematics re­ ceive major emphasis. Students in the U.S.A. are free to explore the various vocational and professional fields. According to their capacities, they are free to elect any field of employ­ ment in which they can meet the technical requirements; they may change their individual jobs or positions and shift from one field to another in keeping with their 22 space journal own interests and desires. Under the guarantees pro­ vided by the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the U.S.A., they are free to make their own political in­ terpretations, whether or not these interpretations are consonant with those of the political party in. power. Vocational education in the U.S.S.R. usuolly is termi­ nal training for a specific job or type of work needed by the slate. Vocational education is provided in schools administered by the Chief Directorote of Lobor Reserves under the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers and in schools organized by the ministries and agencies for their own employees and for workers for whom they are operationally responsible. Semi-Professional Training Vocational education in the U.S.A. is an integral part of public school offerings at the secondary and technical levels. Vocational training in the U.S.A. is on-and-off­ the-job training provided by orgonizations and agencies concerned with the specialized training of their em­ ployees by institutions assisting individuals in their efforts to advance themselves. Semiprofessional schools and technicians in the U.S.S.R. are responsible for preparing students to ren­ der a single specific "support" service to persons considered qualified in a professional field. Advance­ ment from semiprofessional to professional status is unlikely in the U.S.S.R. Semi-professional training in the U.S.A. is sufficiently brood to help individuals acquire professional knowl­ edge and techniques essential for employment in their chosen field and is prerequisite to study leading to full professional status. Advancement from semiprofessional training to professional training and stotus is common in the U.S.A. Higher education in the U.S.S.R. aims to prepare quali­ fied speciolists-with the accepted political point of view-to serve the needs of the state. Diploma work for which no degree is awarded roughly approximates the level of the thesis requirement for the first profes­ sional degree in the U.S.A. Degrees Given at 2 Levels For researchers and teachers a degree moy be awarded at each of two successive levels ofter advanced or postgraduate study. The first, or candidate of sciences, degree may be awarded after a three-year course roughly approximating the level of the doctoral programs in the U.S.A. Those recognized in the Soviet scientific and academic world may be permitted lo en­ roll in the advanced postgraduate program leading to the second, or doctor of sciences, degree. In summary, service to the Soviet state is exacted from students in the U.S.S.R. in return for state-provided educational programs. As a surcharge on their economy, the people of the U.S.A. provide educotional programs for their own advancement and welfare and, in turn, for the welfore of society os a whole." Hand in hand with progressive educational policies and superior teaching staffs go the physical plants. The showplace of Soviet edu- ·,i �cation is the University of Moscow, which is ously customary, and by certainly one of the most imposing centers of Americans and other Western scientists are learning in the world. attending The main building is technical meetings and 32 stories high and it hos over 2,000 rooms. traveling extensively throughout the Soviet In fact, one authority hos likened it to a Union. typical large American hotel. The central building is called the Palace of Science, which is bounded on each side by dormitories cap­ able of housing 6,000 students. The edifice includes classrooms, museums, auditoriums, libraries, laboratories, and a wide variety of small conference rooms. Other buildings are scattered throughout the city to house various faculties. It is suspected that already some­ thing like three-quarters of a billion dollars hove been spent on this enormous project. The professors who teach the university's 25,000 students are well paid. The basic monthly salary of a professor is reported to be $1,500 and an additional amount of money is earned if he writes a textbook (the rate of compensation here is 2000 rubles, or approximately $500.00 for each 23 typewrit­ ten pages. This Is indeed a wonderful remuneration.) Evidence shows that despite the conditions imposed by a dictatorship, the Russians are quite strong in o wide variety of fields from mathematics, astronomy, and solid state phys­ ics to atomic energy, rocketry, and satellite technology. Notional Academy of Sciences he would pick up another 2500 rubles a month. This is more Many Western scientists believe that freedom in the sense we know it is not essential to scientific progress, and such au­ thorities as Dr. von Braun, of the Army Bal­ listic Missile Agency, and Dr. Furnas, of the University of Buffalo, hove clearly demon­ strated that important progress can be and Is being made in a dictatorial community. Dr. von Braun has pointed out that the Ger­ mans made enormous headway in rocketry and aeronautics while under the political dic­ tatorship of Hitler. He emphasized that "as far as personal freedom of movement is con­ cerned, as well as free exchange of ideas In the Should a professor become a member of the strictly scientific and technological sphere, it would simply be misleading to as­ sume that things (in wartime Germany) were much different than in a free country." Dr. than $500.00 a month and is a very respect­ Furnas said, at a meeting considering what able addition to his salary. Should he be­ come academician it would bring him up to we may expect during "The Next Hundred an even higher salary, and he may be able to get up to $50,000 o year for all his accom­ plishments (Harvard's top professorial salary is $20,000 a year.) It is reported that his medical expenses are handled by the gov­ .. Russian the some token ernment and that his children con be edu­ cated at no cost, thereby affording him Years," that he had a confession to make: "For a long time I have felt that freedom in initiative played o port in science. I have heard true science could only grow in com­ parative freedom. The demonstration of what has been accomplished by Soviet science, in terms of objectives obtained over a 30-yeor period, have disproved this. I do not think further savings. Taxes and rent ore also low. Surely the life of o scholar is attractive in that the results obtained by the Soviets are Russia. ing to benefit humanity in the long run-over Incentives are plainly high to en­ courage academic careers. the types of scientific achievement that is go­ one hundred years. Many Western authorities feel that, con­ trary to popular belief, there is a considerable amount of freedom of science in the Soviet For this, freedom is best. But in particular areas, science can grow and flourish in an atmosphere not free." Western science is beginning to heed such warnings. This feeling has been considerably Turning now to the diffusion of technologi­ strengthened during recent years, particularly cal and scientific knowledge, we have again since the death of Stalin. Russian scientists are now traveling to foreign found ourselves in a rather awkward situation. Since World War II we have lived in a state countries in greater numbers than was previ- of semi-isolation from world science, largely Union. It is evident that 23 space journal �Dilia Asipova, assistant of the optics department of Moscow University's physics faculty conducting scientific research on the influence of temperature on intensity of infrared absorption. (Photo by D. Sholomovich) because of the partial, and temporary, eclipse lack of knowledge of what they are doing, of Western European scientific output. The and, as a consequence, there has been an US was not immediately prepared for the post- enormous amount of duplication in research: war Soviet technological onslaught, and un­ many things we should know we simply do not fortunately reacted to know of because our scientists do not read heartedly. MIG's, ICBM's and Russian and translations are few. Sputniks to change our minds about achieve­ There is good evidence that the Russians ments in science and technology in the Eura­ have developed very efficient methods of sian heartland. translating and diffusing foreign knowledge. In recent years, and particularly since Sput­ They have a large, centralized clearing agency nik I, American scientists have become more which collects and disseminates scientific in­ than conscious of the value and desirability formation prepared and distributed by scien­ of knowing about what the Russians are writ­ tists and engineers from all corners of the ing and publishing. We know there are thou­ world. It is reported that Soviet scientists sands of Soviet scientific reports and journals often have a Russian translation of an impor­ which United tant French, German, English, American, or States (particularly by the Library of Con­ other foreign publications before the scientists gress), but they generally serve no purpose in the country of its origin have read the other than to gather dust. original editions. have been received in the Few scientists in the US read Russian, and translation facilities The Soviet Union's All Union Institute of This has resulted in an appalling Scientific and Technical Information has a are lacking. 24 it slowly and half­ It took Russian space journal �permanent staff of about 2300 translators, abstractors, and publishers. These ore sup­ plemented by a port time staff of 20,000 translators and abstractors. The institute re­ leases thirteen abstract journals that contain each year more than 400,000 abstracts of scientific articles appearing in journals repre­ senting more than 80 countries. The institute translates, indexes and abstracts some 1400 of the l 800 scientific journals which are re­ leased in the United States of America.1 Compared with this system, what have we done in the US to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge of foreign scientific and techno­ logical progress and developments? For­ tunately, the American government is begin­ ning to realize the extent of the problem and some important efforts hove been made. There is a variety of organizations of a public and private nature that do some work in the field of interest, and, while much remains to be accomplished, we hove moved ahead. For example, the House Subcommittee on Gov­ ernment Information has held hearings on the subject and it is expected that progress will be rapid towards establishing a necessary government clearing agency. The Govern­ ment Office of Technical Services is planning to increase its contributions very rapidly. Probing efforts are being mode in many dis­ tinct areas, and it remains to be seen if we end up with a large central clearing house run by the government, or rather, a series of smaller, privately managed operations. We receive about 20,000 Soviet scientific reports and journals a year, but only a small fraction is translated or even summarized. An example of the duplication of work re­ sulting from the lack of knowledge of Russian scientific progress is given by a case cited by the National Science Foundation. It was learnetl that several American industries spent five years of research and hundreds of thou­ sands of dollars on the design of electrical circuits only to discover that the work had been fully described in a Soviet scientific publication well before the research had be­ gun in the US. By the some token, it is interesting to know that, contrary to general belief, the radio 'Including SPACE Journal. frequencies used in Sputniks I and II were publicized well before the October and November, 1957, launchings. Indeed, in the Soviet journal Radio, the frequencies were published at least four months prior to the launchings of the vehicles. Much has been made in this country of the supposed fact that we were not informed of the frequencies prior to the establishment in orbit of Sputnik I. Good translation and diffusion services would hove kept our scientists up to dote on Soviet progress and planning. Russia may not re­ lease much, but it does release something. This "something" cannot be ignored. Compare the Russian clearing house dis­ cussed earlier with its present counterpart in this country, called the Office of Technical Services. This boasts a total of less than 40 persons who index and abstract technical re- Senior student Galina Kolenchuk working on her grad­ uation paper "Electrochemical methods for defining uranium·· in the polargraphy and ammeter laboratory of the analytical chemistry department University. (Photo by D. Sholomovich) of Moscow �It operates on research programs The Consultant's Bureau, Inc., yearly pub­ which are carried out under contract for our lishes about 48,000 pages of Soviet scientific government, and releases about 700 reports translations, which moves into a region of a month on sponsored projects. some 12 million words. ports. It translates 28 major There is a considerable belief that the De­ Soviet journals in chemistry, metallurgy, elec­ partment of Commerce, which 'has the respon­ tronics, biology, physics, and geology, as well sibility as certain books and articles of related fields. to maintain a clearing house for information of a scientific and technical na­ The ture, does not operate very efficiently. How­ 20,000 pages of material on Soviet scientific ever, many officials say that, rather than build progress in biology and medical science. up a large government institution similar to has a summary review of 200,000 pages and the All Union Institute in Soviet Russia, it during 1958 it is expected lo increase its would be better for private groups to pre­ production to 30,000 pages of material taken pare their own journal and abstracting in­ from 400,000 pages of research in geo­ dices for the scientific world. Possible finan­ physics, atomic energy, and electronics. Pergamon Institute translates about It and In 1953 the Association of American Uni­ foundations could, of course, be accorded. versities made the following statement in a Others feel that the government should di­ series on the "Rights and Responsibilities of rectly aid in the translation of journals and Universities and Faculties": " ... to fulfill their cial assistance from the government indices , particularly those from the Soviet functions the members and university faculties Union, thereby assuring a nationwide dis­ must continue to analyze, test, criticize, and tribution of material to contracting agencies, reassess existing institutions and beliefs, ap­ private enterprises, research centers, and uni­ proving when the evidence supports them, versities. and disapproving when the weight of evi­ 2 There is some encouraging information sug­ dence is on the other side. Such investiga­ gesting that more Russian material is being tions must not be confined to the physical translated in the US. world. The National Research The acknowledged fact that moral, Corporation of Atlanta, social, and political progress have not kept Georgia, has recently added to its technical pace with mastery of the physical world shows and Development staff one of the nation's leading authorities on Soviet Russia, and other firms have taken similar steps. The Pergamon Institute of New York is busy translating technical documents, and the Consultant's Bureau, Inc., does a considerable amount of work in this field. The Soviet's journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics is to be translated and re­ sults of importance for designers of airplanes and rockets should become more readily avail­ able. Financial support to both Pergamon and the American Society of American Engineers hos reportedly been arranged. At the present time up to 40 Soviet scientific journals are regularly translated within the country, both with government and with nongovernment support. �II is interesting lo know that there are about 15,000 scientific 1ournals appearing eoch month throughout the world, and ,uch journals contoin anywhere from a few lo a hundred or more articles and reports. 26 space journal the need for more intensified research, fresh insights, vigorous criticism, and inventiveness. The scholar's admission requires the study and examination of unpopular ideas, of ideas considered abhorrent and even dangerous. For just as in the case of deadly disease, or the military potential of on enemy, it is only by intense study and research that the nature and extent of the danger can be understood and defenses against it perfected." Today, the very basis of our educational system is being probed in this light, and current in­ vestigations and criticisms across the land give promise of producing far-reaching re­ sults. The US is now taking stock of its educa­ tional situation and several foundations ore sponsoring searching studies of our system. Our private, and free, universities are proud of their rich heritage and know they must work hard and long to survive in a socialistic �In a laboratory of Moscow University-Left to right, Emilio Perevalova, M.Sc. Chemistry; Academician (one of top Soviet scientists) Alexander Nesmeyonov, and Tatyana Tolstaya, M.Sc. Chemistry. (Photo by D. Sholo­ movich) world. One of the greatest endeavors in history to obtain privately subscribed support is the "Program for Harvard College," which will attempt -;o raise $82 ½ million. First and foremost, $16 million will go to support new faculty salaries, not including $5 million for additional professorial appoint­ ments. This is a very respectable amount of money going to further the support of teach­ ers and to bring their salaries up to a signifi­ For students, $8 ½ million in cant level. scholarships and other financial aids will be made available. The library endowment will be increased by $15 million, and approxi­ mately $15 million will go into facilities. To improve the so-called "climate of scholar­ ship" about $25 million will be spent. There may be some doubts as to the validity of establishing so much money for "climate of scholarship," rather than further increasing the amount for faculty salaries, but at least this is a step in the right direction, and may be indicative of what we are to expect from enlightened American educational circles in the age of science and technology into which the world has progressed. In a commencement address at Harvard University, President Kirk of Columbia stated the following, "The primary function of a great university is the pursuit and the trans­ mission of knowledge, that knowledge which is the basis of genuine wisdom because it may be regarded hopefully as valid for all time. A search for such truth is never ending, but the true university . . . is the foremost in­ stitution devised by man, in which this quest can be carried on free from the limitations of conforming in teaching or in research to any currently accepted ideas, and free as one may ever be from the influences of special pleading and vested interest and selfish ambi­ tions. Such a university is the arsenal-the one greatest arsenal-with which men's minds can be equipped to battle against the forces of ignorance and prejudice which are forever reaching out of the mire to clutch at the hu­ man soul and drag it down. A university like Recommendations for National Science Foundation Research and Amounts Voted by Congress Appropriation Fiscal Year 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 .s Presidential Recom mendotion 225,000 3,500,000 4,750,000 8,000,000 12,250,000 16,000,000 40,000,000 40,000,000 $ 475,000 14,000,000 15,000,000 15,000,000 14,000,000 20,000,000 41,300,000 65,000,000 this-is the focal point of the hopes of man­ kind." With this we can close our inquiry into the educational background to the Russian chal­ lenge. We believe our great, free unive.-si­ ties have no peers on the planet, but beneath and around them lies an immense zone of uncertainty. Will our primary, scondary and university systems (which must provide us with the bulk of our educated men) become suffi­ ciently strong to answer the requirements of the Space Age? We can only hope that the many weaknesses inherent in these schools will be discovered, analysed and corrected. This is the one great answer to the Russian Space Challenge to the free world. 27 space journal �> �,1,.1, • 'r I! ~ -· • \, ·-·-- -, - --_;._ .\'. - , ·� . ·• ., �• ... . V � • 0 • �WE KNOW how to machine metal parts to your specifications within .0005 of an inch. WE WILL meet your delivery schedule. 2300 CLIFTON ROAD 30 space journal NASHYILLE, TENNESSEE �SPACE SYMPOSIUM By Col. J. G . Mayton f I to overtake the US in o molter of fifteen or twenty years, according to the statements of Col. Joseph G. Moyton 1, o graduate of o Ru ,ion college in Monchurio He ol,o ot­ tended the Orienlol In 1,tule where ,rudent, were trained for diplomatic service in the for Ea1I under the Czorht regime. He received hi, A.8. (19211 ond MA (1922) from lhe University of Cobfornio ond his Ph.D. (1929) from the Brook• ings Groduote School of Economics ond Govern• menl (now Brooking, lnslitulion), Ho moiored in economics ond poiitlcol science, with special emphod, on Runio ond the for Eo,t. Col. Moyton served 01 Air force liolson officer ond interpreter In connect,on with the Big Three Conference ot Yollo. He is a con,ultont with Notional Re,eorch and Development Corporation. her own leaders. Some will argue that Soviet Russia is al­ ready ahead of the US in scientific explora­ tion. The launching of the three Sputniks into orbit is regarded os one of the foremost achievements of Soviet scientists and engi­ neers. The scientific world and the man in the street were astounded when the Russians achieved these magnificent feats. Undoubt­ edly it was a great scientific achievement, and In the preceding two sections of this study, the authors surveyed Soviet Russia's technical It was also a masterstroke politically from advance and her educational preparations in the Communist point of view. Russia scored a the field of science and engineering which psychological victory which is not likely to be hove mode such progress possible. In this erased. section, the aim will be to analyze briefly and Broadly speaking, in the general field of concisely the political, economic, and military science and in engineering, the US continues significance of to be oheod of Soviet Russia. Industrially, Russia's accomplishments in these directions. No one con deny that Russia's advance in 'J no one con toke that "first" away from her. Russia is still no match for the US.However, under the stimulus of five or six Five-Year science and engineering hos been sizeable. Plans, the Russians have mode tremendous in­ As Defense Secretory Neil H. McElroy said dustrial progress by concentrating their man­ ofter the Russians hod orbited their second power and resources almost exclusively on satellite: " ...the fact that they did get o heavy industry. Since World War couple of satellites into the air and into USSR hos more than doubled its production II, the orbit indicated a degree of scientific sophisti­ of such strategic key materials as steel, pig cation which hos got to make this country iron, crude petroleum, coal, and cement. It respect the Russion scientific capability ... " claims a sizeable increase in electric power This is especially significant considering the production, almost approaching our own, fact that less than fifty years ago Russia was and shows similar advances in the produc­ regarded os being quite backward by West­ tion of cotton and woolen fabrics. ern standards. The notion was then primarily significant hos been Russia's superior position agricultural; the Industrial Revolution, which in the design and production of jet aircraft by that time hod already overtaken oil of and its use in transportation. Western Europe, was still in its very infancy in US, as the foremost industrial country of the Russia. Yet, today ofter o lapse of only half world, also shows sizeable gains in the some a century, she is the world's second great period, its rote of increase appears to be for industrial notion, and entertains the ambition less than that of Soviet Russia. Most Although the 31 space journal �MAJOR TECHNOLOGICAL MILESTONES /I ;· I , I/ I 'I 1949 ---- -- 1s1 1st 1st I , -----------A-Bomb H-Bomb Satellite USA 1945 1952 1958 USSR 1949 1953 1957 For your future convenience-but in the meantime use our Huntsville facilities HOLi DAY INN HOTEL 32 space journal �2926 -I -- 31 4 13' 38 31 u s - .. - 1120 u s s A 50 ,q-o R 1000 100 130 130 w:Z. u S A 1>'1- 11,0 .. ,. u s s R '-4 ICBM PRODUCTION SATELLITE WEIGHTS • Sen, Kennedy-Aug , 1938 (Con9,,.ulo"ol Re101dJ This hos led some observers to suggest that behind in missile development or in the de· if the progressive rote of industrial growth velopment of new and more destructive or claimed by the USSR continues, the loller foster weapons. could catch up with us within a decode or two, as Soviet leaders maintain. This state of affairs hos prompted many Should geopolitical analysts to suggest that o stale­ that happen, Soviet Russia could gain not only mate may eventually develop in the armament in political prestige, but also in economic race between the US and her allies on the power, with all the advantages that such one hand and the USSR on the other. power con bestow. fear of retaliation would prove a strong de­ a formidable She would then become competitor in world trade. terrent. The This would restrain Russia for more She could also score a tremendous victory than the US since aggression is alien to our through her foreign aid program, especially military and foreign policy. in the underdeveloped areas of the world herence to the United Notions Charter hos into which she is trying to penetrate. been attested ever since that organization This Our strict ad• seems to be the current direction of the Soviet come into existence. foreign policy with its attendant idea of gain• we foll behind in our scientific research and ing converts to her way of life as well as engineering enabling her to force other notions to become Soviet leaders feel that their military and Such de­ industrial power is strong enough to paralyze pendence could then be exploited by Soviet the US and the free world, they would not economically dependent upon her A politically and economically strong Soviet Russia, extending her sway over many satel­ lites in both Europe and Asia (and in Africa, too) con truly present o serious threat to the free world. endeavors, hesitate to use it. leaders politically. In possession of the atomic bomb, the hydrogen bomb, and the several kinds of missiles, Soviet leaders already try to throw their weight around. Accordingly, However, if and when and if and when That is why recent Russian accomplishments in science and engineering, coupled with the rote at which her progress in those directions is going, is of such concern to the US and the other free notions of the world. With the advent of the Space Age in which Russia hos already mode a head start, the challenge hos become even more formida­ ble. In the hands of the US, science and engineering is used for the benefit of all if we ore to meet the Russian challenge, we mankind; in Soviet hands it is o means of must maintain equal, extending Communist control and consequent capability. or superior, military Furthermore, we must never foll enslavement. 33 space journal ��SPACE SYMPOSIUM d i a Iect ic a I m a t e r i a Ii s m-t h e r e a I c h a IIen g e of soviet science By Karel Hujer was barn in 1902 in Cxocha­ slavakia. A graduate of Prague UniverJlty with a Doctor of Science degree in 1932, he has done graduate work in France, at the University of London, and at the University of Chicago. In addition, he has olso studied astronomy in Indio, Chino, Tibet, Japan, Mexico, Peru, and many countries In Europe. In 1935 he was Invited to India by Mahatma Ghandi and stayed at Ghandi's ashram in Wardha where he lectured at the evening gatherings. In 19-'9 he returned to Indio at the invitation of Dr. Rajendra Prosod, presi­ dent of the Republic of India. In 1957, ot tho reque,t of the Prague National Observatory, Dr. Hujer rotur�od to Ctechoslovoklo for o series of lectures on tho odvoncoment of American astrono­ my. He hos taught ot Iowa Wesleyan College ond Michigan Stole College before coming to the University of Chottanoogo where he is now in charge of tho Jones Observatory. An author of mony article, on o,tronomy, Dr. Hujer ls a fellow of the American A,tronomicol Society ond the Royal A,tronomicol Society of Landon; o mem­ ber of the A,tronomlcol Society of the Pacific and the Societe Astronomique de Fronce, OS well OS many honorary societies. After the first Soviet satellite blazed the trail into outer Space, gr�ot concern was expressed in this country as to the status of American science and scientific education compared to that of the USSR. Since that time much hos been written and continues to be written, almost to the degree of olormism, on the marvelous advances of Russian science in general, and Russian physics in particular. This concern stands in odd contrast to the complete indifference paid Soviet scientific activity prior to Sputnik I. We need only remind ourselves that as early as April, 1957, Nesmeyonoff, president of the Soviet Academy of Science, announced that Soviet scientists were almost ready to launch their first arti­ ficial satellite. The world, particularly America, either ignored or foiled to heed this an­ nouncement. Only ofter the Sputniks began orbiting around Earth was this ominous American concern directed toward the startling Soviet Dr. Karel Hujer technological accomplishment. Yet in all the countless comments on the Soviet technology little reference hos been mode to the curious and perhaps all important aspect in which Soviet education most earnestly ond meticu­ lously exposes ond interprets science: the Soviet teacher of science, whether he is a physicist, chemist, astronomer, mathematician, sociologist, or biologist, must know how to interweave his subject with that specific philo­ sophical outlook or Weltonschouung known os dialectical materialism. Whereas scientific technology hos on immediate, sensational, and ponderous impact on human society, dialectical materialism cumulatively builds up its influence with the lapse of time, the conse­ quence of which portentously tends to super­ sede the effects of on H-bomb or the accomplishment of a trip to the Moon. Why? Because it is the idea which in the course of time shapes and motivates events in the physical and material world. What is dialectical materialism? In what woy is this doctrine closely interwoven with Soviet science and scientific instruction? At present this philosophical doctrine is the offi­ cial, authoritative school of thought behind the Iron Curtain; and all students ore in­ evitably channeled through its indoctrination whatever their particular scientific field may be. As on illustration, it is not unusual to find as a foreword to a serious Communist work on natural science Die Entwicklung im Uni­ versum (Evolution in the Universe) by Dr. Walter Hollitcher, professor of philosophy at Humboldt University in East Berlin, a quotation from Stalin: Everywhere, from ostronomy to sociology, the ideo thot in the world there is nothing eternal, thot everything undergoes constant chonge ond 35 space journal �evolves, encounters meons tho! noture from evolution. we the constont must look slondpoint confirmation. upon of everything movement This in ond This meons thot the spirit of dialectics permeates the entire contemporary science. Dialectics, the reality of change_ caused by struggling opposites, although set forth in the nineteenth century by Hegel, as an idea has been known since the ancient Greek school of Heraclitus. For Hegel, however, dialectics was in the realm of theology and philosophy-, the struggle of opposites being between the absolute, Divine Mind and the finite mind of man. Hegel's dialectics is, then, a dialectics of absolute idealism. Likewise, materialism, the belief in the primacy and objective reality of matter, had its birth in ancient Greece. Revived in the eighteenth century, it became fashionable among French materialists until it was shaped and refined into the popular system of Auguste Compte's positivism. This Such a concept was formed by his life­ long friend and supporter Engels and con­ tinued vaguely and cumulatively by various followers, Lenin being the foremost. Thus we have at present the dialectical materialism of the Marxist-Leninist version that directs the way in which science textbooks must be writ­ ten wherever the Communists have political control. The Marxists are usually inclined to attach the adjective scientific to their system of philosophy. After all, Marx denied the need for any philosophy, and Engels declared that philosophy died as science grew. But it is evident that neither Marx nor Engels could foresee the fruits of their own labor. Apparently neither could have imagined on ominous, mushroom cloud which would arise concept occurred in the midst of the golden on the horizon of the mid-twentieth century, a era of physical science. cloud which would prove beyond doubt that The progressive drift away from Hegelian idealism began with science without philosophy becomes a grave Feuerbach, Bauer, and other young Hegelians social menace-even for the most dialectical and continued until the arrival of two out­ of materialists. standing personalities, Karl Marx and Fredrich Nevertheless, when the socialist panacea of Engels, who were to formulate an ideology Marxist philosophy was firmly fixed in the that would shape the destiny of the twentieth Communist state, the picture of the world and century. of human society was described as perfect, The very fact that Marx and Engels appeared at that historical moment seems logical, and unquestionable. Communist cul­ symptomatic, for they both claimed the scien­ tural liners tific age to be the age of the proletarians. Marxism-Leninism into a final code and un­ planners and party shaped As a reaction against Hegelian idealism, failing guide beyond which there could be no both Marx and Engels more than anyone else other appeal except treasonable diversionism. are responsible for the historic combination In other words, Marxism-Leninism became the In their view one belief in the order of the Communist­ of dialectics with materialism. science and the scientific method completely Socialist society. justified this union. It was in the middle of basic articles, there is no science except that the nineteenth century, pregnant with scien­ science which serves and supports the Com­ tific discoveries of the greatest importance, munist Party. that Marx shaped his ideas. 3b Marx, however, never thought of constructing an all-inclusive philosophical or ideological system and concept of the world. He believed he According to one of its In this way physical science, particularly astronomy, enjoys the greatest had discovered the key to human life in the freedom in an otherwise rigidly controlled economic categories in which his materialism system because it is least open to the peril took the form of economic determinism, an of interference from Communists cultural plan­ idea strangely parallel to the present view of ning. the deterministic Universe of the physicist. tronomy that is supposedly associated with Marxian dialectics takes the form of class the most effective means of propaganda for struggle, and the social and historic existence certain favorite Communist beliefs which the of man becomes the measure of everything. official party line considers as standard and space journal On the contrary, it is physics or as­ �patronizing guidance for the human mosses and the key to the promised land for the proletariat of the world. Thus in the USSR the social and economic position of o good physicist is equal to that of o cabinet minister and indeed may be o source of envy for his Western counterpart. The inevitable question arises, then: What ore these qualities of physics and astronomy that ore so appealing to the Communist cul­ tural planners? Let us briefly look at some of those qualities of physical science which bolster research to such o surprising degree in the Commmunist countries. Above all it is important to the state that the Universe is knowable and deterministic-in other words, that the Universe is dialectically materialistic. There is nothing supernatural about it. o Universe without God. It 1s This means that it 1s only o question of time before man solves all of the mysteries which hove in the post been described as the handiwork of God. This, then, is basically the Communist Uni­ verse. But even more startling is the fact that the Western world holds a view of the Uni­ verse which is not too for removed from that of the Communists. It holds this view despite its apparent religiosity. Let us examine the origin of this materialistically philosophical point of view. The formative period of Marxism belongs to the great age of physical science which flourished in the nineteenth century. Material­ istic philosophy received fresh impetus in 1798 when Laplace published his sensational This comero wos installed ot the Kozokh Academy of Sciences to toke pictures of the third Soviet ortiflciol Eorth sole/lite. (Photo by I. Budnevich) mathematical formulation of his hypothesis on the origin of the solar system, Exposition du Systeme du Mende. It is said that Napo­ leon, a jealous supporter of cultural activity 1n the growing empire, commented while he was preparing to bestow the title of marquis on Laplace that he could not find the name of God mentioned in the book. Laplace retorted: "Your majesty, I did not need him." attitudes This incident is typical of the found during the growth of the physical sciences during the nineteenth cen­ tury. Another example is characterized by 37 space journal �the astronomer Leverrier's deterministic calcu­ tions of ultimate particles of physical matter lation of the position of the unknown planet and that any idea that it had a divine begin­ Neptune-a triumph of Newtonian mathemati­ ning as the result of God's work is merely a cal physics. The idea was further exemplified relic of man's primitive mythology. The im­ in physics by Kelvin and Helmholtz and their plication here is obvious, they feel; it is only deterministic and rather gloomy views that a question of time and systematic research the total energy in the Universe would even­ until man's intellect, a product itself of chemi­ tually be so diffused that the Sun's flow of cal processes, will discover these delicate heat to Earth would eventually cease. A pic­ vibrations and be able to create life in a test ture was developed which saw the Universe tube. as merely a complex machine, something which could in time be reproduced on a model scale by engineers and formalized by the equations of mathematicians. This, then, The continuing success of science and lab­ oratory triumphs encourage this bold assump­ tion. These omens have produced self-confidence, and the Marxist architects of was the world view that nurtured Marxist social reorganization feel assured that the theories and one which reached its intellec­ future belongs to them. This same belief is tual climax in the middle of the nineteenth echoed by the present leaders of the Com­ century with the work of such figures as Fara­ munist world, as witness the Kremlin belief day, Maxwell, and Darwin. that "rime is on our side, we'll bury you." Despite. all these self-confident boasts. the Thus the triumphant march of science and the Industrial Revolution which logically fol­ lowed had a tremendous impact on the forma­ tion of the philosophy and the social life of man. Together these two factors forecast a free world still asks: Is dialectical materialism the last word in human knowledge as the Marxists so fervently believe? Have we not seen many times throughout the broad sweep of man's histo vy the proposal of similar, new and redeeming age in which man was categorical manifestoes? to become the coordinator and finally the also seen them pushed aside by circumstances master of the laws of the Universe. This view and the very changes in the course of history? is boldly set forth in the significant work The briefest glance into the story of philoso­ Life in the Universe, recently published by the phy will show that dialectical materialism can Soviet Academy of Sciences. It was written claim to be only one of many philosophical by two outstanding Soviet scientists, the bio­ systems that rose and flourished until they chemist completed their function or role and then A. I. Oparin and the astronomer And have we not V. G. Fesenkov. These two authors refer in vanished into the dormant galleries of history a patriotic and were recorded in the infinite annals of friendly and manner to the eighteenth century Russian scientist, M. V. time. Lomonosov; and they point to the fact that among others the notorious scholasticism of from the style of his writing Lomonosov was the middle ages, contained an element of tributary to the masters of his time. Likewise truth; but in each case the system itself was Each of these many systems, including Oparin and Fesenkov, in turn, ore subservient converted to evil when it became vested in to the new masters of this age when they power and the idea of infallibility and per­ quote from Engel's Dialectics of Nature, a manence. The Marxist dogmatists are already work little known to Western scientists but a exposed to this historic peril when they speak Bible for the Communist scientists. The views authoritatively from the throne of their politi­ of Oparin and Fesenkov coincide with this cal sovereignty when they proclaim the in­ context. Life, they feel, including any higher tellectual and philosophical sovereignty of state of consciousness and subsequent quali­ dialectical materialism. ties it involves, is only the natural result of to that of the scholasticians confronting Gali­ the cosmic evolution of matter. leo Both authors maintain that life began in the complex vibra- 38 space journal in their righteousness. dogmatic The situation is close self-assurance and Now the Marxists fail to profit �from the truth and the reality of historical truth, and thus they sow the seeds of their own philosophical destruction. We cannot, however, be lulled into a sense of false security by a knowledge of the weakness of a philosophical system that now governs the lives of on essentially simple people. Marx never dreamed that his ideas, intended for on industrial civilization, could ever be planted in what was and still basic­ ally is a peasant Russia. But they were; and Russia is on extremely vigorous notion and so ore the effects of on utterly Western philo­ sophical system. Before the influence of the doctrines of dialectical materialism so avidly cultivated by the rulers of Communist do­ minions will spend itself, we hove no less than half a century to look for immediate and unpredictable results for better or worse with residual vestiges lasting for centuries. Here is something of a portentous nature to look for, and it is of great importance to mankind today. Although our terrestiol vani­ ties may be concerned as to who will be first to reach the Moon, it is incomparably more important to know what our earthly mind will carry along into the wastelands of the lunar reaches: Will it carry the ideas of a semi­ civilized and tribal caveman, or will it be those of a man who is admittedly his brother's keeper? In the meantime our only consolation Viktor Spitsin of the USSR Academy of Sciences is shown lecturing on inorganic chemistry in Moscow Uni­ versity (Photo by D Sholomovich) rests in the logical conclusion of history that is forever valid for every civilization and for every individual: the truth that power cor­ rupts. In our case, looking across the politi­ cal barrier, we slate that the authoritarian Marxists today, no molter how loudly they proclaim themselves the custodians of science and scientific progress, will ultimately per­ form by the very power they possess all the acts that invariably will choke the spirit of free scientific inquiry, the only true condition for the advancement of science. 39 space journal �space reporter GOOD FOR MAN, BEAST, AND ICBM with on effective exposure time of five­ One more guided missile headache hos billionths of one second, hos been announced been cured by General Electric's guided mis­ by Electro-Optical Systems, Inc., of Pasadena, sile engineers. And they cured this one with California. that reliable old standby Bromo-Sellzer. GE is developing nose cones for the Atlas Dr. A. M. Zarem, president of the com­ pany and developer of the camera, said ICBM and the Thor IRBM at its facility in that it would prove highly valuable in helping Philadelphia. to solve special problems in the study of To house recording instruments during lest flights of these missiles, GE's engineers intense explosions, of ultra-sonic shock waves, and of special nuclear reactions. developed o spherical capsule which is car­ The novel feature of the camera is that ried in the missile nose cone and is ejected it contains o hermetically sealed, lorge-ope­ before the nose cone hits the earth. Elec­ ture, wide-angle Kerr cell shutter which pos­ trically sesses no moving parts. It is pulsed electroni­ operated markers help engineers cally to obtain photographs of extremely brief exposures. Dr. Zorem said that with further development and refinement of techniques used, the camera may be capable ultimately of toking pictures with exposures of o frac­ tion of a billionth of a second. To illustrate the speed of the camera, it was pointed out that the satellite Sputnik, moving at approximately 18,000 miles per hour, would travel only one-and-one-half thou­ sandths of on inch-a distance less than the thickness of a human hair-during the time of one exposure. The camera was developed for the Samuel Feltman Ammunition Laboratories at Picolinny Arsenal, Dover, New Jersey. locate the capsule. properly, these However, lo function markers must be delayed for a few minutes before operation. And here's where the Bromo-Seltzer comes rn. Bromo-Seltzer, pocked around electrical wires, delays completion of the electronic circuit for the few minutes required for opera­ The photographs show the electrical dis­ integration of three aluminum wires, each one-thousandth of an inch in diameter and one-quarter of on inch long. Explosion of the wires was photographed at three phases: 20-billionths of a second, 30-billionths of o second, and 40-billionths of o second ofter the discharge was started. tion. Considerable time hod been spent in per­ fecting mechanical switches, none of which worked satisfactorily. The engineering head­ aches involved were extremely annoying until GE's engineers found the answer in the family medicine cabinet. EXPOSURE· 5,000,000,000th OF ONE SECOND Development of the world's fastest cam­ era shutter, capable of toking photographs 40 space journal -· •·rTt j.• I f•·•. Jl - I. •• •JJI \ ·t I.,•....,r, 11"1 I, ·\. • • ' '\. I -:: �SPACE PROJECTION a proposal for a village on the moon By H Kumaga rosh examples of prefabricated structures designed Hiroshi Kumagai was barn in Japan in 1931 and received a bachelor of engineering degree in archi1ecture from lhe Tohoku Univer­ sity in 1955. After graduation from college, he worked in architectural and ,1,uctural design far companies in both Jopon end the US. He ls a member of the American Rocket Society, the Space Travel Association of Japan, and the Japanese Institute of Architects. He is presently a member of the Gehre, D. Weed architectural Orm end lives in Kalispell, Montono. to meet unusual and rigorous environmental conditions. But the first scientists to visit the Moon will be faced with conditions far more hazardous than those existing at Earth's South Pole. In addition to the purely physiological and psychological aspects of adjusting to life on the Moon, our scientists will be subjected to a gravity one-sixth that of Earth; bombard­ If man is, as scientists and engineers spec­ ulate, going to land on the Moon within the next 30 years, it seems obvious that there should be some preparation for habitation on that barren satellite of Earth. It behooves us now to begin planning suitable structures for ment by cosmic rays, X-rays, and meteors; and extreme temperature changes, to name but a few. Their base on the Moon must be designed and built to specifications which will permit them to exist in such surroundings de­ spite such dangers and inconveniences. man's prolonged existence there; and the Before we can proceed with an elaborate problem, while being complex, is by no means experimental program for lunar prefabrica­ The solution to this tions on Earth, we will need to know much problem of constructing a village on the Moon more about the environmental conditions on completely insolvable. lies initially in sending up prefabricated struc­ the Moon. tures or building materials by space ship or through a continuing process of space re­ Once the preliminary exploration of search and exploration, it will be added to the the lunar surface has been completed, space basic architectural research which the leading rocket. As this data becomes available cargo ships carrying prefabricated materials architects and building construction engineers can be launched from Earth and landed in se­ will have undertaken. Some of these condi­ These tions we already know, and we con begin ships would be relatively economical in that now to pion ways in which to cope with them. they would not have a human crew and For example, we know that on the Moon there the complex and expensive equipment which is a daily temperature differential between would be needed to sustain a crew during the midnoon flight from Earth. 400 F. lected areas on the Moon's surface. Much valuable basic research into the and midnight of approximately This compares with a maximum sea­ sonal temperature variation, between winter techniques of design, manufacture, and as­ and summer, on Earth of only some 200 F. To sembly of prefabricated housing has already minimize the effects of these extreme temper­ been accomplished-at least indirectly-by ature differences, we could construct our shel­ the scientific effort which has gone into the ters underground-or undermoon, if the term The shelters be permissible-where the insulating proper­ which protect our scientists participating in ties of the lunar surface would lessen the IGY activities at the South Pole are excellent severity of such a change. International Geophysical Year. At least one geo- 41 space journal �• -- • i f ,... . ....,,.., .. . •. ♦ ' " the consideration of horizontal loading due , to these forces. -..«< .. Since we know that the gravitational pull of the Moon is six times less than that of Earth, we can design structural beams and columns with sectional areas six times less than those required for similar construction on Earth. This also means that we can erect taller, relatively heavier, and more imaginative structures within the limitations imposed by the use of materials such as concrete, steel, lead, lead glass, etc., which are necessary to block out cosmic rays and X-rays. For the moment, we must assume that the early colonization of the Moon will be done by scientists who will live in prefabricated shelters built partially or wholly below the lunar surface. Architect Kumagai suggests that one of the Moon's craters, such as Copernicus shown here, would be the logical choice for a space station or his proposed village. (Photo by Yerkes Observatory) But later buildings for more permanent residents need not be subsurface. As our knowledge of lunar environmental con­ ditions and the techniques of building con­ struction on the Moon increases, we can build bigger and more complex structures. graphical feature of the Moon, the Ariadaeus Rill near the lunar equator, suggests itself as a possible subsurface site in which to construct the first shelters.* If no natural declivities, overhangs, or caverns are to be found in the rill, then it would be necessary to prepare artificial ones by blasting them out of the walls. In addition to simplifying the problem of temperature control, such a subsurface shel­ ter would offer some protection against the smaller of the meteors which our scientists must expect. Moreover we know that the Moon has practically no atmosphere (about 1 0-4 of that of Earth). This fact simplifies at least one of our problems: with little or no atmosphere, heat from the Sun is for all practical purposes by radiation only. The problems incident to the control of heat within our shelters are then reduced. For example, our structure need constructed only be of a material opaque to radiant heat in order to reduce the temperature within. With no atmosphere there con be no high winds, hurricanes, or torna­ does such as we have on Earth. 42 The walls of Once the geology of the Moon is definitely known, it may be possible to use indigenous material for such construction purposes. For those shelters to be built above the lunar surface, we must rely on a plastic dome. This dome will actually consist of a dome within a dome. The outer one will be com­ posed of triangular plastic units, approxi­ mately six inches thick, assembled with special expansion joints. These units will be made of a plastic which is strengthened by radio­ activity, and they will contain lead. Thus the outer dome will be effective in stopping me­ teoric ash and small meteors. offer It will also some protection against cosmic X-radiation. and It will be coated to reflect heat, but it will allow some light to enter. Since the outer dome will be a rigid structure, it need not rely completely on an internal air pressure to support it. Three feet within the outer dome will be a flexible, one-inch thick, inner dome. This dome must be airtight and must be supported entirely by internal air pressure. Since the stresses in it would be tensile rather than compressive, it will consist of several layers of plastic film reinforced by fiberglass. our structure then can be designed without The space between the two domes will be *Eric Burgess, Satellites and Space/light, p. 120 filled with air at a pressure lower than that of �,-- .,-:e journal �the inner dome. This pressure differential will balance the negative vertical force and the gravitational force. Provided the outer dome is large enough, it should be seen from the Earth as a gleaming mirror when the Moon is between the full and crescent phases. Inside the dome, walls and roofs ore un­ necessary for the individual buildings, but these structures ore designed for special function. Walls ore needed then for tempera­ ture control or protective reasons. The atomic power station must hove walls to protect nearby buildings from thermal radiation, even though the power station itself is located within a crater the sides of which shield other THE SIGHT in my opinion is the source of che greatest benefit co us, for had we never seen the scars, and the sun, and the heaven, have spoken about the universe none of the words which we would ever have been uttered. Bue now che sight of day and night, and the months and the revolutions of the years, have created number, and have given us a conception of time, and the power of enquiring about the nature of the universe; and from this source we have derived philosophy, than which no great­ er good ever was or will be given by the gods co mortal man. -Plato. installations from radioactivity. The solar power building will hove walls consisting of semiconducting units and these units will move like louvres, always following the Sun. In the daytime these units will produce electricity. Cone-shaped reflectors around the building will be used as refractory furnaces for the smelting and refining of metals from ores mined on the Moon. For structures outside the plastic dome, the walls must be both airtight and capable of reducing cosmic and X-rodiation as well as offering protection against meteors. Such walls could be made of concrete, plastics, or steel. When concrete is utilized, as in the WITH THE FLIGHTS of m­ strurnenc-carrying rockers co these nether reaches of the earth's atmosphere-and beyond-all our old assumptions are bound co be challenged. This is no time for dogmatism. -The Christiall Scie11ce Monitor. It is the scars, The scars above us, govern our conditions ... -King Lear. 43 space journal �' ' . .' . c:::::::J . : .. . . · ,.. �-: 'I ,• : SITE & FIRST FLOOR PLAN SCALE l" 200' 0" VILLAGE ON THE MOON FOR SCIENTISTS AND VISITORS DESIGNED BY: Hiroshi Kumagai t. ATOMIC POWER STATION 2. SOLAR POWER STATION 3. COMMUNICATION AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY BUILDING 4. CARBON DIOXIDE AND WASTE PRODUCTS DIS. POSAL BUILDING 5. WATER, AIR AND MINERAL SUPPLY AND REFINING PLANT 6. VEGETABLES AND PLANTS SUPPLY BUILDING 7. CHLORELLA REARING BUILDING 44 space journal 8. FISH REARING BUILDING 9. ROCKETS AND SPACESHIPS STANDS AND PORT I 0. ADMINISTRATION AND LIVING CENTER I I. SPORTS CENTER 13. LUNAR TRANSPORTATION BUILDING 12. LUNAR PHYSICS AND MINERAL LABORATORY 14. BUILDING FOR AIR, LIGHT, TEMPERATURE AND WATER VAPOR CONTROL OF DOUBLE PLASTIC DOME �case of the communication and astronomical yond the immediate biological needs of our building, both the inside and outside must be scientific outpost, both the oxygen and the coated with a lead plastic. hydrogen obtained from the water could be blocking radiation, this In addition to protective coating would also help retain the moisture in the - used as rocket or space ship fuels and oxi­ dizers. concrete and thereby strength'en it. This same In the final analysis, while the landscape technique of plastic-coated concrete will be of the Moon may look rugged and forbidding used in the lunar transportation building and through the observer's telescope on Earth, it the water, air, and minerals supply and re­ may not present as formidable an obstacle to fining building. the architect as it appears. Its geography of­ The lunar physics and mineral laboratory fers almost unlimited possibilities for the archi­ ° tect with imagination, resourcefulness, and a Since the Moon's gravity is knowledge of the environmental conditions 1 /6 that of Earth, this would be relative to which will be supplied to him by the lunar will be constructed with a floor inclined 18 to the horizontal. a floor on Earth which has a 3 ° slope. The purpose of the inclined floor is to give the probes and pioneers of the not too distant future. occupants of the lunar buildings a feeling akin to that which they had on Earth. The furniture for the buildings will be designed on the same inclined principle. The net effect will be to give the scientist who works at a desk, sits at a table, or lies in a bed approximately the same gravitational orientation that he would have in similar activities on Earth. The problem of supplying oxygen for an atmosphere within both individual buildings and the plastic dome can be solved in two ways. 3" ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELESCOPE 60 to 160 Power-Famous Mt. Palomar Type! An Unusual Buy! One is to cultivate ponds or tanks of algae ch/ore/la pyre noidosa, a tiny water plant. See the Stars, Moon, Planets Close Up! The other is to dissociate the water of crystalization which may be present in the rocks of the Moon. Dr. Harold C. Urey be­ lieves that at least some of the lunar minerals are like the magnesium silicates which can contain as much as 13 percent water of crys­ talization. If this is true, then 100 tons of rock will yield 13 tons of water. Heat from the Sun can be utilized to obtain this water, and electrolosis can then break the water down into oxygen and hydrogen. However, not all the water thus obtained would be used for the production of oxygen. In addition to that needed to sustain life, some of it will be used to grow the ch/ore/la algae which will produce oxygen; and some of it will be used in hydroponic agriculture. Further uses would be in raising fish which would serve as an economical supplement to the lunar diet. Be- ,..,-<-,, ",� , . /-?\ vt,\ ., Assembled-Ready to use! You'll see the Ring8 of Saturn, the fascinating planet Mars, huge cn1to1·s on the Moon. Stai· Clusters, Moon� of Jupite,· in detail. Galaxies! Equatorial mount will lock on both axes. A luminizcd and o,·er­ coated :l" diamete,· high-speed f 10 mirro1· . Telescope comes equipped with a 60X eye­ piece and a mounted Barlow Lens, giving you liO to !GO power. An Of)tical Finde1· Telescope, always so essential. is also included. Sturdy, hardwood. po,·table tripod. Valuable STAR CHA RT and 272-page "Handbook of Hea,•ens." Stock No. 85,050-HB. $29.9ri Postpaid. 4-1 / 4" ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE! Up to 270 Power. With this scope you can sec everythinii: as above but with greaLer power plus will split finer st•irs. Mirror has twice the liii;ht gathering power. Mirror gua1·anteed to give Lheoretical limit of resolution. Rack and pinion focusing, hardwood tl'ipod, real equatorial mounting only one adjustment follows stars! Aluminum tube. G-power finder Lclescope. 2 standard size ey<'pieces and mounted Barlow lens gi\'e you powers of 40X. HOX, 120:X. and 270X. Free handbook and Chart. Shipping weight 25 lbs. $74.50 f.o.b. Stock No. 85,006-HB We n,onuiocture the Satellite Telescopes used at Moonwatch Stations throughout America. O,der by Stock No.-Send Check or M.0.-Sotisfa<tion or money bock! WRITE FOR FREE GIANT CATALOG-HB Over 1000 Optical Bargains We are Astronomical Tele�cope headquarters l 80 page cata­ log shows huge selection of Microscopes, 13inoculars, Satellite Scopes, Solar Furnaces, lnfrared Sniperscopes, Telescope Cameras, Camera Holde1· attachments. Magni­ fiers, Lenses, Prisms, etc., optical parts and accessol'ies. EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO., BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY 45 space journal �--METEORITES GLOBAL REPORTING United States The 3-cent IGY commemorative stomp placed on first-day sole in Moy in Chicago depicts on area of intense solar activity of a type which is currently being investigated during the IGY. Superimposed above the solar disk is a detail from Michaelangelo's fresco "The Creation of Adam." Ervine Metzl, designer of the stomp, explain ed that "In the small confines of a postage stomp we have endeavored to picture man's wonder at the unknown together with his determination to understand it and his need for spiritual inspiration to further his knowledge." Japan Japanese and American scientists estimate that the launching site of the Soviet satellites and intercontinental missiles is located in the Karakorum desert (Turkmenistan) at 41 ° north latitude and 61 ° east longitude. These figures were derived from calculations of the orbits of the first two Russian satellites. Russia Under a recent picture in a Soviet newspaper was the following caption: ship needs to circle the Earth is l ½ hours at the most. "The time a space The round trip to the Moon will require 10 days; while the trip in on elliptical orbit, intersecting the orbits of Venus and Mars, giving the possibility of a return to the Earth, will toke at least one year." 46 space journa! �United States The journalism faculty of the University of California recently published the results of an in­ vestigation into the treatment which the launching of Earth satellites received in the world press. According to the survey, the average number of printed lines per newspaper is Explorer II ... ........ . Vanguard I ........... Explorer Ill ............ Sputnik I ............. 700 lines Sputnik II ... .... .. ... . 300 lines Explorer I . .. .. .. ..... 75 lines 60 lines 55 lines 20 lines England • The British Interplanetary Society, which is second largest of the national astronautical societies, celebrates its 25th birthday this year. The organization now has 2500 members. Its Journal of the British Interplanetary Society has been published for 17 years. In October, 1956, the society began publishing its very popular magazine Spaceflight. Japan According to a recent Japanese announcement, rocket engineers In Akita have developed a "supersound [sic}" rocket. The rocket has two stages and will be launched during the IGY for research purposes. The first test flights have already been made. The rocket weighs 300 pounds and is approximately 25 feet long. The first stage is reported to boost it to on altitude of 1 2,000-15,000 feet. Czechoslovakia Loiko makes a reappearance in the form of Soviet propaganda. Sputnik ll's little canine recently cropped up as an epitath on a card printed in Prague and widely distributed in eastern Europe. Note the misuse of interplanetarian. ,·. 47 space journal �-SPACE BOOKS & FORTHCOMING - -----=- e w e d Re v by J e n n i n g s R a I p h E D a n i e I s . J r . J a m e s L M . D a v i d Spacepower. Stoiko. By Donald Cox and Michael 262 pages. Philadelphia: The John Ray m s A k n d e n s 0 In his introduction to the book by Williams and Epstein, Dr. Wernher von Broun aptly states: "With the advent of manmade satel­ C. Winston Co. $4.50. Messrs. Cox and Stoiko raise some pointed lites, it is quite appropriate that there be a example: new edition of The Rocket Pioneers ... In cov­ "What must I do now to prepare for the ering the last 150 years, the authors take the Space Age?" and "Where do I go from reader here?" convincing astounded the conservative military men of questions answers. in For Spacepower. They also offer some This is not a technical book nor is it space fiction. It is a thoroughgoing and thought-provoking book that analyzes changes about to take place. the It analyzes from Sir William who Napoleonic Europe with a war rocket to the present day Explorers and Sputniks. The au­ thors ore interested in the pioneering of rockets, and they steer away from space the changes that many men now alive will travel. undoubtedly see. been achieved thus far. It tells how information Congreve Their purpose is to show what has They show how gleaned from satellite-tracking systems will Konstantin Ziolkovsky, physicist and mathe­ begin having its effect on our civilization and matician, provided theories that led to the how every facet of our society will be affected belief that space ships would have to be -our farms, factories, jobs, travel, medicine, powered by rocket motors; how Robert Hutch­ homelife, The ings Goddard, father of American rocketry, with bridged the gap between theory ond accom­ authors our probe international deeply and relations. examine startling clarity the hopes, needs, and prob­ plishment lems in the fantastic new world which man rockets; how Hermann Oberth designed the is building for himself. first rocket ship, sprinkled with The book is liberally illustrations created in the by actually making and firing though it never left the ground; how Wernher von Braun and his team fertile imagination of N. Stonilla. designed the supersonic rocket-V-2. The Rocket Pioneers. By Beryl Williams and of course, the book tells of the VfR, the Samuel Epstein. 241 pages. New York: Julian German Society for Space Travel; the Ameri­ Messner, Inc. $3.75. can Rocket Society; the Peenemuende Group 48 space journal And, �-of oil who deserve to be known as the to do. great rocket pioneers. guard in America's space program results in They deserve it be­ This emphasis on the role of Van­ cause their dreams and their achievements little will hove led to the fulfillment of space travel Force programs which hove proved to be when it becomes on accepted transport opera­ more reliable and more rewording. tion in the not too distant future. Amateur space travel enthusiasts and professional documentation of the Army and Air The book opens with the modest news re­ lease with which Tass announced the birth of a rocket men alike will find this revised edition Sputnik I and closes with a paraphrase of of The Rocket Pioneers to be informative and quotation from N. J. Berrill's Man's Emerging well written. Mind. In between there is a wealth of ma­ By Homer E. terial concerning the more recent history of Newell, Jr. 114 pages. New York: McGraw­ rocketry and its use in warfare, the many and Hill Book Company, Inc. $2.95. various problems which must be solved before Space Book For Young People. Dr. Newell's Space Book For Young People offers a clear and dramatic explanation of the Earth and its position in the Universe­ otmosphere, the Moon and satellites, the Sun and the other planets of the Solar System, galaxies, comets, meteors, asteroids, and eclipses. It supplies the mathematics which space Aight becomes a reality, ICBM's, and a resume of the history of the American Rocket Society. However, there is a great deal of information in this book for those interested in the background of just what is going on in Space. -M. Raymond is necessary for o real understanding of space distances, rocket speeds, and the like. With exciting bring block-and-white everything into illustrations easy focus that for the reader, it is a highly readable book on a subject vital to today's young scientists. A REDUCED It is also the answer to the harassed parent's prayer. Dad con now ovoid embarrassment by referring Junior, with his unanswerable questions, to this book. -Rolph E. Jennings What's Going On In Space. By Commander David C. Holmes, USN. New York: Funk & Wognalls. $3.95. Perhaps the only Aow in this summary of what is going on-and what hos gone on­ in outer Space is that it was prepared a little prematurely. Commander Holmes has done a good job of summarizing the many projects and problems which lead up to the present state of affairs in outer Space. But, perhaps out of loyalty to the Novy, he hos devoted o considerable amount of verbiage to the Van­ guard Project. Apparently relying on pub­ licity Commander releases, Holmes gives a fairly complete story of what Vanguard was designed to do but, unfortunately, hos failed Gift Subscription Rate of $1.60 per year CAN BE ORDERED WITH EACH REGULAR $2.00 SUBSCRIPTION. ORDER NOW AS CHRISTMAS GIFTS. Rising costs have increased our regular sub­ scription rate, but we are holding down our gift rate until after Christmas. Complete post-paid card and put in return mail. 49 space journal �.. Rocket Experiment Safety, Safety Suggestions Relativity for the Layman. for the Rocket Hobbyist. man. Atlantic Research Virginia. Prepared by the Corporation, Alexandria, 19 pages. By James A. Cole­ New York: Mentor Books. $.50. This reprint of Professor Colemon 's popular and widely acclaimed introduction to relativity This small pamphlet, prepared and dis­ should be of great interest to the nontechnical tributed free of charge by the Atlantic Re­ devotee of space travel. It is a well-organized search two book in that it begins with the experimenta­ It is an excellently organized and tion leading up to Einstein's special and gen­ well-written booklet for the serious amateur eral theories of relativity, then reviews the of any age, and it illustrates the concern that experimental proof of the theories and ends a progressive manufacturer has for the safety with the relationship between the theories and of those interested in rocketry. the nature of the Universe. The author has Corporation, reasons. is interesting for The pamphlet contains much valuable in­ formation concerning the manufacture, test, and firing of small rockets. It also includes details for making simple but reasonably ac­ curate instruments for measuring rocket per­ formance. In addition there is on excellent bibliography and many suggestions for or­ ganizing o rocket club. The attitude which the Atlantic Research Corporation hos shown in preparing this timely little publication is commendable. It is also in sharp contrast with the attitude of one of the nation's second string aircraft industries which has taken a "public be damned" view toward such projects. Satellites and Spaceflight. 159 pages. By Eric Burgess. New York: The Macmillan Com­ pany. $3.95. purposefully kept his text free of mathematical formulae-and to good advantage. He ex­ plains relativity by analogy and example. This method of explanation is done in terms which are familiar to the layman, and thus his explication succeeds rather than further com­ plicates a subject the layman has long con­ sidered to be the epitome of scientific confusion. -M. Raymond The Space Encyclopaedia. Spencer Jones & Others. Dutton and Co. By Sir Harold New York: E. P. $6.95. From ondromedids to zodiac, this Space Age compendium unsophisticatedly defines and describes those astrophysical, astronauti­ cal, and astronomical things and ideas stum­ bled over and mumbled over by the average Earthman in his newspapers and magazines. This book 1s reminiscent of Willy Ley's Although its definitive essays on the more Rockets, Missiles and Space Travel, but 1s complex and often less common terms are not as broad in scope as that book. As its apparently authentic, the book commits in­ title implies, Mr. Burgess's book is limited to excusable oversights in the case of the more satellites and spaceflight. It is a well-written Earthy entries. For example, the entry on book which will serve the serious student of Theory of Relativity neatly equates energy to space travel as a valuable text. In addition mass times velocity of light squared, and subjects as instrumented explains some common applications of the satellites and space stations, it also has two theory; yet the entry for Redstone on the timely chapters on lunar exploration and the opposite page says it is now called Jupiter­ to covering such construction of a base on the Moon. At a competely false. A brief check even in a first glance the book appears to contain a daily paper would have corrected the entry. bewildering assortment of mathematical charts Regardless of some such errors, the book's and figures. However, as the reader pro­ informative entries on comet, galaxy, meteor, gresses, it becomes apparent that Mr. Burgess rocketry, has done on excellent job in simplifying the many others make this a handy volume for recondite mathematics of rocketry and space the armchair spaceman. travel. 50 space journal spectroscopy, star, sunspots, and -James L. Daniels, Jr. �AT LAST -The Complete International Story of ROCKETRY AND SPACE EXPLORATION By Andrew G. Haley President, International Astronautical Federation HERE JS the whole exciting story of modern rocketi·y f,·om its earlie�t hel{in­ ninl{s throu1th Wol'ltl \Vnr II, l'iu:ht up tu todny's lnunchim:s of missiles anti satel­ lites. Here nrc the fnnrnus men and milestones in the ,lcvelopment of rocketry . . fa,•ts <111 rocket pro,ha•tion in the U. S. and abrnnd, nntl a lllimpse of the funtnstic future of )-Jan':; conquest of space. How Rockets Work This huge book I nlmm,t n foot hillh ! l tells you the complete history of rockett·�· its o•·hrin, the ''b•1ck-�•Rrcl" rm·ketc>er,, of the :W's the Gernrnn V-2, nnrl \Vol"ld War II' ,; contribut ion. With 170 ,lrnmatic illustrations anti authorita1h·e text. it ex­ plnins in simflle. nontechnicul terms C'.\Rctly how r<>ckcts operate. Descl'ibes the Atl11s, Titan, Thm·, Nike, X-li>. rnchel airplunc of the future. the Sputnik, the Vang11ard, and the Explorers. A Glimpse of the Future This up-to-the-minllle hook look:; ahead to rockets pro1wlled hy ions. nuclear enerl{y, and e,cn lif.tht it,;elf: lo mnnn.e,l ,mtellites nnd s1rnc1· ,·raft : nntl to the in­ credible explorations ur the universe thnt now ap1war within rench. Examine it Free for 10 Days Simply mail cuupun ln exnmine book for l () day�-FR�;�;. l f nut ilt>j�htccl wn:, the book, return it: owe nothin:.:;. Olher­ in�tnlln1ent.-;, if' yo 1 \\isc, send onh SH.7� tor ea wish). I), I'll;, .\'011trand Co., /)1•11I. 11111111. UO ,t/1•.,·11111/,,r SI.. f'ri11t't'/011, .\' ,/. (/��/. /SIS). Going Into Space. By Arthur C. Clarke. 117 pages. New York: Harper & Brothers. $2.50. It is not surprising that Mr. Clarke once again crowds into o small book a large amount of space. "If you simply sit bock and wait, you will reach your destination in due course, assuming, naturally, that you hove started off in the right direction, 11 writes the author, with typical poignancy of the British and obviously of Mr. Clarke, too. As with his Exploration of Space, and Inter­ planetary Flight, the author's presentation though scientifkolly accurate is nontechnical and interesting. "Imagine that you were out in space and that floating beside you was some large heavy object. If you could b•oce your­ self against this object and then give a good kick, you would move off in one direction and the object would move off in another. 11 Thus, Mr. Clarke summarizes jet propulsion. In a book well illustrated, Mr. Clarke pro­ jects space travel for into time and Space. It is a book definitely worth reading, not only for the amateur but for the more knowledge­ able reader. -David S. Akens r------------------0. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Dept. 4010 120 Alexander Street, Princeton, New Jersey Send me-for 10 days' FREE exominotion-Rockelry And Space Exp/oration . If not delighted, I will return book; owe nothing. Otherwise, I will remit Sl .75, plus small shipping cost, ond S2 .50 o month for 2 months. Nome, ___________ PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY Address,__________________ City·_______ Zone _ Stole,______ In Conodo, Address D. Von Nostrand Company ltd. 25 Hollinger Rood, Toronto 16, Canada {Price slightly higher) O SAVE-Check box if enclosing full payment ($6.75) with this coupon. Then WE will poy oil shipping costs. Some return-for-refund privilege applies. 51 space journal �REACT'ION VOX POPULI ..... Dear Editor, . .. I wish to congratulate you and your associates upon the publication of this journal. I shall read it with much interest. Alabama Polytechnic Institute Auburn, Alabama Ralph B. Draughon President Dear Editor, After reading Dr.von Braun's article "The Acid Test" in the summer issue of SPACE Journal, I would like to say that I think that it is the most sensible piece of writing to come out of the Sputnik scare. He stated exactly what this test facing us consists of and does so with better qualifications than many others who write on the same subject. He is right all the way in stating that this test involves not only our scientific and technological capabil­ ities, but "every facet of our civilization, every part of our society: religion, economics, politics, science, technology, industry, and education." In other words, probably for the first time in our history, our very way of life, our system of accomplishment, our whole way of thinking-is being challenged. Dr. von Braun states, "The acid test of men and nations is the measure of their courage and resourcefulness in the face of adversity and peril." We here in the West must realize that today we are faced with a powerful and determined foe far more formidable than any other in the history of the world. What 52 space journal kind of courage and resourcefulness shall we show in the face of this great peril? It must represent the ultimate in the reasons our fore­ fathers had in founding this country on the democratic principle. If it is, we will meet and beat the challenge of the Soviets. I wish to congratulate Dr. von Braun on his wonderful insight into the problem at hand. Is man, when he is on the verge of the most superb and exciting venture he has yet em­ barked upon in his existence, to bicker and fight with his fellow men when he is at the bounds of the Universe? Let's hope not. Bert Sardello Trinidad, Colo. SPACE Journal 1s glad to see that the man in the street, if we may so call reader Sardello, realizes that the fru­ ition of man's conquest of Space must cut across all arbitrary and chauvinistic obstacles. In the broadest sense, the race for Space is not really for Space at all-it is a political and technological contest between nations with all the at­ tendant hoopla and publicity. It should, of course, be a world-wide race of man against time. In the final analysis, we feel that it will be the conquest of Space which will unite mankind. Once man is convinced of the ultimate neces­ sity of Space travel, we believe that he will forget the purely political, racial and economical views which have kept �him in a state of physical, mental, and when the Sun burns out. moral turmoil for so many years of his to justify space travel on the grounds that it is brief span on Earth. Editor. There are attempts necessary to undertake this difficult chore to insure man's survival in case of such an event. May I remind your readers that man in ' Dear Editor, Space will still be man with all his unsolved ... We have long recognized the need for education in a self-governing nation, but have only recently realized that it must be a continuing process. Adult education comes largely from current publications that express the learning of men in every field. Since the pages that can be utilized by educational articles are limited, it seems wasteful to print more fiction. problems. Space travel will not empty the It is good that our best space and rocket scientists can put their knowledge in words the layman can understand. Today when we are bewildered by the bombardment of con­ flicting opinions of men in high places, it is good to have the truth from those who speak with the authority vested in them by reason of their advanced work and superior knowledge. For these and other reasons we are sin­ cerely grateful for SPACE Journal. Phoenix, Ariz. Mrs. E. D. Gooch Perhaps the important thing is not that our scientists can put their knowledge into words the layman can understand but rather that our scientists are free to put their words before the layman. Today, more than at anytime in history, we are wrestling ", . . not against flesh and blood, but against . . . spiritual wickedness in high places." With this realization, we believe that it is the right of all scientists to speak openly­ not because of their advanced work and superior knowledge, but for the reason that science must be free in order to flourish and that the scientist must not be denied his inate dignity as a human being. Editor. insane asylums of the world, deal with para­ noids on all continents, provide food for the starving, or any other of a thousand measures which will contribute toward survival of the species. While an increased knowledge of the heavens holds great fascination for me, I still feel that physical knowledge is not any sub­ stitute for the spiritual knowledge contained in the great religions or that escape from the realities of Earth will bring any happiness to anyone, including the pioneers of Space ... San Jose, Calif. , Richard W. Lundberg SPACE Journal does not advocate space for man's ills or as an international form of group psychotherapy. We agree most wholeheartedly that "man in Space will still be man." We do not negate the basic truths of the world's religions by holding them up to modern science. Indeed, we believe that it will be the courage man derives from his religion or philosophy and the knowledge that he derives from his sciences which will ultimately place him in Space. Editor. travel as the absolute panacea Dear Editor, In his stimulating article "The Purpose of Man in the Universe," summer issue of SPACE Journal, John Hulley raises a number of ques­ tions which we have been discussing under the heading of theoretical anthropology. Our analysis, however, has been along slightly Dear Editor, In looking through the summer issue of SPACE Journal, I was struck by the fearful attitude of some of the author.s. Two articles were concerned with the far distant times different lines, and we submit the following ideas in the interest of furthering careful spec­ ulation on man's future possibilities. A. We take the distinguishing character­ istic of Homo sapiens to be symbol-behavior, following Sir Julian Huxley and others. (See 53 space journal �o +--- E "The Symbol: The Origin and Basis of Human Behavior" and "On the Use of Tools by Primates" in The Science of Culture by Leslie A. White.) Note that symbols are used freely and arbitrarily, whereas the signs used by lower animals have a single, fixed signifi. II. But at the human level a new factor enters the evolutionary process. Sapience is semoplastic adaptation: cance. 0 -<-> B. We posit a symbol-continuum (or semop/asm) which serves as an instrument of communication both between contemporaries and between generations. In addition it has properties which make it an increasingly effi• cient instrument of understanding. C. We hold that any extraterrestial organ• isms likely to be of great interest to most human beings must employ this same adaptive mechanism. Otherwise we would be unable to communicate with them and learn from them. D. We propose calling such organisms sapients. The present terminology covering our possible analogs on other planets is im­ possibly confused. To call them human, as Mr. Hulley does, seems to us to predict too much, since they may not even be primates. They are frequently called sentient beings, but this fails to distinguish them from, for example, earthly cows. Sapients seems to us both simple and clear. (S equals semoplasm) This being the case, perhaps we should make it our business to search out other sapients and add our total of the symbol­ continuum to theirs. Eventually our combined understanding might make it possible to ap­ proach the riddle of the Universe without the overwhelming modesty which Mr. Hulley ac• curately perceives to be appropriate for the present. Society for Theoretical Anthropology John F. Collins New York, N.Y. Corresponding Secretary While SPACE Journal feels that it may be unfair to the earthly cows to assume that they are purely sentient rather than sapient-after all, communication In his discussion of man's place in nature, with the cow is difficult-we believe that Mr. Hulley invokes the ecological balance reader Collins and his group have a among lower organisms..•. Finding that man legitimate point, and we earnestly urge does not fit into the earthly ecology, Mr. them to submit an article to SPACE Hulley prescribes for him the mission of inter• planetary landscape gardener, whose "dis• Journal seminating agency would contribute to the profusion of life on the planets he reaches." But we would suggest that a more accurate appraisal of man's place in nature and a more inspiring purpose can be found in the following formulas. I. In subhuman species, evolution is an in­ terreaction between organism (0) and environment (E) which con be divided into outoplastic phases: 54 space journal ( � } and alloplastic ( �) putting forth their views-in language the layman can understand. Seriously speaking the problem of com­ munication with extraterrestial beings is a problem which is worthy of scien­ tific investigation; and the problem must be approached from the philo­ sophical rather than the mechanical direction. We can build an efficient elec­ tro-magnetic transmitter, but can we adapt the intelligence of the receiver to it? Editor. �Dear Editor, In trying to help my childr1:n understand One of the most striking articles I hove ever read, and I do mean striking, as it is electrifying in its meaning ...was John Hul­ ley's "The Purpose of Mon in the Universe." Here at lost in block and white is the theory I personally hove held for a long time; but laymen cannot always put such thoughts into prose, though they ore locked within us. Beautifully thought out, forcibly written, clear as crystal, and as grand as the majesty of the Eternity above us, it hos more meaning than a thousand sermons. the most recent one, inertial guidance, a new way of presenting the concept occurred to me that they found very helpful, and which we all feel should be shored with others. This is to consider inertia as ontiwork which brings it into o parallel relationship with concepts already fomilior in the area of atomic particles. Considered as onfiwork, it is easy to understand the concept of quantity as applied to inertia. Essentially, then, the amount of inertia, or ontiwork, of o system is the amount of work which it con neutralize or render ineffective. . . . Hulley doesn't soy it, but I hove often We would appreciate your comments on wondered, what with man's ten-thousand year the validity and usefulness of this concept. history, where all his fossilized remains ore. Boston, Moss. Couldn't the answer lie in the fact that Homo sopiens was indeed only fairly recently dis­ on seminated another from living This may sound startling to one world ... ? reading it Earth for the first time, but when one calmly mulls it over and eliminates any inborn or acquired prejudices, the possibility carried tremendous weight. Mudelein, Ill. Mrs. Olive D. Smith Dear Editor, . . . My special congratulations on the superior articles by Mr. Hulley and Dr. von Broun. Mr. Hulley's article hos a depth in (almost) religious philosophy which hos great appeal and value. I certainly wish the US Dr. von Braun's would listen as seriously to views-as presented in his article-as it admires his material accomplishments. . . Thanks for a fine journal. Birmingham, Alo. Miss Onnis Waid We hope that readers Smith and Waid will enjoy John Hulley's next article in a future issue. Editor. Dear Editor, Along with most other people, we ore a family of space enthusiasts, and so tend to follow and try to understand each new de­ velopment. William Gray, M.D. Rather than get involved in physics and the laws or inertia, we offer as an al­ ternative an article on inertial guid­ ance by Mr. Paul Weinschel in the Spring 1959 Edition. This article is writ­ ten expressly for the purpose of simpli­ fying some of the techniques of and advances in inertial guidance for space Articles in future issues will travel. deal with the problems of navigation and propulsion. Editor. FOR SPACE ENTHUSIASTS w�c Jti/1 �ave tittre tc lau9� YOU CAN'T AFFORD TO MISS EARL TUCKER AT LEAST TWO COLUMNS IN HIS RAMBLING ROSES AND FL YING BRICKS ARE STAR GAZERS: Somebody's Up There Except Me How to Treat the Martians if They're Well Read the book then give it to someone for Christmas For your illustrated, 130 page edition of Rambling Roses and Flying Bricks Published by The STRODE Publishers Send $2.50 to ROSES Box 82 Huntsville, Ala. 55 space journal �carried as a payload a special packet of Dear Editor, I just bought the first issue of SPACE Journal to reach the newsstands in Havana. SUPERB. No doubt many armchair rocketeers like me hove been waiting for a serious magazine in layman's language .. When I was about 1 0 years old, I remem­ ber watching a newsreel which, among other things, showed two unsuccessful attempts to launch model rockets from a lake in New York ...I also remember the laughter of the audience and their comments ...About that time, a local (and short-lived) rocket society did launch a small power rocket from Havana to Guines, some 30 miles to the south, which "rocket mail" ... Best wishes for your continued success. Antonio V.Alvarado Havana, .Cuba SPACE Journal is interested to hear of this early attempt at organized rock­ etry in Cuba. Similar attempts in rocket mail were made at approximately the same time in the US and Europe. And SPACE Journal is glad to hear that we have readers in Cuba now. Incidental­ ly, we have heard from readers in New Guinea, Venezuela, Canada, and Bul­ garia, to name but a few countries. Abstracts from SPACE Journal are also printed by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Editor. . (_ .,. i �Q� � . ,\;,/,�l � .1\ � (;r � . dJ� dJlJ 56 sp ace journal �TO PAST PARTIAL CONTENTS Introductory statements by; President Dwight D. Eisen­ ho\, er and Gen.James H. Doo­ little; Fore\\ ord by Donald W. Douglas; Early Attempts to Fly; Balloons and Gliders; Civil War; Wright Brothers Era; First Successful Flight; First Army Plane; a val Av­ iation; Beginning of Airmail; Early Factories; W.W. I; F'lightsof theTwenties; Great Flights Around the World; First Airplanes; Commercial Aviation; Ai rcraftManufact• urers; Hindenburg Disaster; Scientific De velopments; W • W II; Postwar Era; Future in the Air. PRESENT ow for the first time, the full story of man in the Air is presented m a huge and lavishly illustrated volume. The Editors of YEAR have worked closely with scores of aeronautical experts in the U. . and abroad gathering authentic documents and little kno,, n aviation lore. From the thousands of rare aviation photographs and early drawings unearthed all over the world, the Editors have carefully chosen 1.000 of the most important and unusual. Herc is the whole magnificent story, the facts, the inside stories, the personalities, from Icarus to the early Balloonists, from Da Vinci's winged machines that never left the earth to current plans for space stations. Here then is the story of men of courage and vision and faith, men who dared to cut their earthly bonds, often with nothing but danger and loneliness as their reward. Fill in the coupon below to receive your copy of FLIGHT. r--------------------------------- YEAR 21 W. 45th St., New Yortt 36, N. Y. Please send me -- copies of YEAR's Pictorial History of FLIGHT on a 10-doy free examination bosis. Please indicate binding. 0 Standard Binding @ 7.95 per copy 0 Deluxe Binding (leather type) @ 10.95 per copy 0 Collector's Edition (all leather) @ 22.95 per copy NAME TITLE FIRM ADDRESS CITY STATE �\ \ The need to know- "Within a short time, our missiles and satellites programs involved hundreds of thousands of people-ranging from Senate Finance Committee members to the girls who type invoices for materiel suppliers. Sputnik I brought an interested and enthusiastic public. Some textbooks were available for the engineers. There was almost no literature for the layman, other than science fiction. Out of this need to know came SPACE Journal, conceived by the Redstone Arsenal scientists who launched the Explorer satellites. SPACE Journal is a progress report of a ne,v, furiously expanding field. It interprets for the layman the theories and philosophy of space, interplanetary flight, astrophysics, and the actual accomplishments. Begun as an amateur effort, SPACE.Journal's first issue was 5,000 copies. An additional 15,000 copies were printed to satisfy the demand, and sold at the newsstands o( twelve cities. A company was formed to continue its publication as a quarterly. The print order on the second edition was 100,000. There was an instant demantl for copies from government agencies, the armed forces, the press, educators and industry. To fill an order for Stars & Stripes in Europe, 2,500 copies had to be taken off the newsstands. The print order of the third issue was 120,000. SPACE .Journal is distributed nationally by the Independent News Company. The importance of space flight is emphasized by the current appropriations of $510 millions for space flight research. SPACE Journal is read by the people who sign the orders; the designers, engineers, manufacturers; the technicians and servicers who operate them, and a large portion of the educational world. It offers a tremendous new and unduplicated potential for your advertising effort. And SPACE Journal's general readers are an enormous plus value, an audience appreciative of your efforts, a potent nucleus of informed opinion; and include the young people who will be responsible for the future of space flight. SPACE Journal advertisers include: Brown Engineering Company, Inc.... Chrysler Corporation ...General Astronautics Corporation . . . Glen L.Martin Company ... North American Aviation, Inc., Rocketdyne Division ... Precision Engineering, Inc.. . . Reaction Motors, Inc. . . . Reynolds Metals Company ... Robbins Aviation . . . Sperry Rand Corporation, Ford Instrument Company Division . . . T hiokol Chemical Corporation, Redstone Division. SPACE-Journal published by Space Enterprises, Inc., Tuck Building, Nashville , Tenn. ADVERTISING REPRESENTATIVES: Hale Carey, 420 Lexington Avenue, New York City. MacDonald-Thompson, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Portland, Denver, Houston, Tulsa. - --- - -- - - - - - - - - - --- - r -- � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 4, Fall 1958. Subject The topic of the resource Ballistic missile defenses Cold War Dialectical materialism Life on other planets Science--Study and teaching Sputnik satellites Technology--Soviet Union Space race--United States--History--20th century Description An account of the resource This issue discusses at length the competition in science, technology, and engineering between the United States and the Soviet Union, including comparisons of developments in missiles, satellites, and educational systems. This issue also includes plans for a village on the Moon. Includes the subscription card inserted in the center of the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rocket City Astronomical Association Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spc_mitc_001_062 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/516/vbas_space_journal_001_054.pdf 427bc10b4c2597894b5c361248b31056 PDF Text Text H JOLIR SEPTEMBER D E D IC A T E D T 0 T H E AL 50 CENTS ASTRO - SCIENCES INTERSTEllAR SPACESHIPS FOR EARTHMAN'S EXPLORATION Of 'HE UNIVERSE SPACE EXPLORATION AND THE VALUES OF MAN! - Page 9 AMATEUR ROCKETRY -GA TEWAY TO TOMORROW! - Page I 6 STRANGE RUSSIAN THEORIES ABOUT MARS! - Page 26 IS THE "NEUTRINO" MAKING A JOKE OF SClrnCE? -Page 31 �MISSILE KITS Seven giant models of the Army's Guided Missile Defense System reproduced in precision detail from OFFICIAL U.S. ARMY PRINTS! Order yours now! DART NO. M-12 Boxed with Little John u s ... "' HONEST JOHN NO, M-16 Over 1 3" long NIKE HERCULES NO. M-14 Over 21" long LITTLE JOHN NO. M-12 Boxed with Dart TALOS NO. M-15 Over 1 S" long NIKE AJAX NO. M-13 Over 1 7" long CORPORAL NO. M-11 Over 22" long M 14-Nike Hercules-21" Long-$2.00 M 11-Corporal-22" Long-$1.79 M 12-Dart and Little John-$2.30 M 15-Talos-15" Long $1.89 M 13-Nike Ajax-17" Long-S.98 M 16-Honest John-13" Long S.98 SPECIAL-All seven for only $7.50!!! save $2.44!! Order From Missile Kits 316 Howerton Nashville, Tennessee NO C.O.D.'S PLEASE �SEPTEMBER 1959 VOL. 2 NO. l In keeping with SPACE Journal's Iheme of projecting into the future, Horry Longe hos creeled on imaginative represen tation of on Outer Space scene envisioned by Hoeppner and Isbell in the second port of their article Project Star' to oppeor in o forthcoming edition. The landing vehicle# shown in the foreground, is being separated from the photon (light) thrust unit ond prepored for re-entry into the Eorlh"s atmosphere. In the background, another inter1tell0r Space ship can be seen leaving our Solar Sydem al near light speed. Acluolly, the photon ray would be invisible, since its wove length would be in the X-ray and gammo•ray region, bul for illustralive purposes the light ray is shown with the roinbow effect of the en tire light spectra. IOARD OF CONSULTANTS P,ofenor Hermann Ob■rth Dr. Herbertu, Strughold Or. Eugen S•en9■r Helmut Hoeppner Dr. Joh•nnH Gi1vtr1 Ron•ld C. W•ktford Dr. Ku1I Hujer Frederid: I. Ordw•y, 111 EDITOR 9. Spencer hbell ASSOCIATE EDITORS EDITORIAL PROJECT ABLE AND BAKER . .. .. . ..... . . . . .. . • . . .. 2 R•lph E. Jenning, J•mu l. D•nieh, Jr. Mitchell R. Sh•rpe, Jr. ASSISTANT EDITOR D•"id l. Chridensen TIME FOR A CHANGE . ....... . . . . ...... . ....... 2 ARTICLES LAYOUT DIRECTOR H•rold E. Price DOES THE MOON POSSESS A MAGNETIC FIELD? Dr. Zdenek Kopel . ..... .. . . . ... . .. 3 Dr. Donald N. Michael . . . . . . . . ..... 9 SPACE EXPLORATION AND THE VALUE OF MAN GREEN MOUNTAIN PROVING GROUND: GATF>NAY TO TOMORROW GRAPHICS DIRECTOR lee R. Moore, Jr. G. Harry Stine . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .16 Helmut Hoeppner and B. Spencer Isbell .31 IS TIME THE MISSING LINK? ART DIRECTOR THRUST CONTROL OF SOLID PROPELLANT MOTORS H,ury H.·K. lo1nge Dr. Harold W. Ritchey .................. 43 BUSINESS MANAGER Richo1rd T. He.igy PRODUCTION MANAGER FEATURES DEPARTMENTS PUBLISHER .22 .26 MEN OF SCIENCE ..... ADVERTISING DIRECTOR Fred D. Wright FUTUREMAN SPACE BOOKS .42 ....29 ....24 INFORMATION FREE ......40 SUBMISSION Of MATERIAL S 01 4r-ticles of c;oo to 3000 wo•ds are preferred. Send the original on whi e bond poper, type-Nr,•ten, do1.tble spacer,,, ph,s two ca·bons. Ke'( all � ,rations with the ·er•. Photograph shodd be 8 .• 10 ,nches on g1o_ss y u od. A pichire o! •:,e author and o short b·oqr.sphical no•e .,,e re.:tuired for puol"ca,;on. Secur,ty cleorance for all mo�erial subm,tted is fre re,pons1b1lity of the author. Send moteriol to SPACE Journ-31, P. 0. Bo• 82, Hunhv,lle, Alabari,o All moterial acc.t!!pted for publication become, the exclu,,ve proper tv of SPACE Journi:,1. Contr;buting arl;stl were Robed Redman end Doisy Longe. Editoriol Contributor wo, Q,3..,1d A.lens. PUBLISHING SPACE Journol u pubHshed quorterlv by SPACE Enterprises. Inc. n Noshvil le, Tennenee. © by SPACE En!e,prises fnc. (959. All r ghts res.i,rved. Nc­ port·on of this mo9azine c.en be reproduced without the ei;prened wr tten p4'rm ;nion of t'le copyright propr;e,or. Entered as second dau mot•er ot Nashville, Tenneuc,.. Subscript.ons: Un;led States and Conodo $).00 six inues. Foreign: 'S4.00 for ,ill iss1.1es. Sena to SPACE Jo1.1rnol Nash..,ille, Te,,n�see ADVERTISING Ad...ert; s.ing Rates will be furnist-ied on reque1t to SPACE Journal, Nashville, T ennessee. Western states: Ren Aver:11 Col;lpanv, 232 Nort"i lake Ave., Pasa• dena CoLfornio Telephone RYon 1•9291. Eastern stotes: Murrav Bernhac-d, 118 East 40th St., New York c;ty, Telephone OXfo,d 7-S◄20. �TIME FOR A CHANGE!! Beginning in Fronce, the metric system hos spread throughout the world displacing the local measurement system in notion ofter notion. The question of should America ond England follow suit hos been popping up ever so often for the lost hundred years. There hos been considerable discussion, ond some of the proponents of the British system of measure point out thot Chinese shopkeepers still use on ancient system of measure ond thot Spanish units ore not uncommon in South America. Although it is true thot some trodes still cling to the old woys, the overall trend is for the prevailing system of units to give woy to the metric system. If the world is ever to hove o single system of measure, it must be the metric. Seven coun­ tries, including Chino, Russia, ond Jopon, hove o dopted the metric system since 1920; ond the metric system has invaded both Britain ond America. Much of our scientific research is conducted in metric units, the electrical ond chemical industries using the some units throughout the world. This process is continuing os some groups, sometimes entire industries, switch over to o decimal system. So it really boils down to o question of how long before America should adopt the metric system per se. The cost of conversion for some industries would be considerable; ond some of these industries hove influential Congressional lobbies. Another difficulty experienced in trying to adopt the metric system occurs in getting o majority of the people to favor something new ond different. Teaching the metric system in Grommor School ond High School would olleviote this ond moke the transition less painful. The odvontoges of the metric system are: 1. It is simple. 2. It is o decimal system. 3. It is international in chorocter By Douglass B. Spears, Jr. PROJECT ABLE AND BAKER Two American-born female monkeys, Able ond Boker, os the world now knows them, were launched in the Army's reliable Jupiter from Cope Conoverol on Moy 28, thus becoming the first primates to survive o trip through Space. They were recovered, along with other biological experi­ ments flown by the Army, 92 minutes ofter liftoff from the Cope. The Jupiter carried Able ond Boker over o trajectory of some 1,965 Space miles with o maximum altitude of over 300 miles. They re-entered the atmosphere at a ve­ locity of l 0,000 miles on hour, experiencing 38 times the normal pull of gravity plus o weightless period of some nine minutes. Able later died while undergoing on operation for removal of on electrode. The cause of death wos o rapid ond convulsive movement of the heart, following the odministrotion of o light surgical anoesthesio, and was unrelated to the recent flight which the seven-pound Rhesus ex­ perienced. The experiments, sponsored by the Notional Aeronautics and Space Administration, were carried out by the Surgeon General of the Army, the Novy ond the Army Ord nonce Missile Com­ mand. The Army Ballistic Missile Agency developed ond launched the Jupiter missile ond pro­ vided most of the special hordwore for the experiments. An interesting sidelight to Operation Mon key were the howls of indignation from the various humane societies. The onimols were recovered in perfect condition, ond scientists coll the ex­ periment o major step toward manned rocket flight. The participating services ond agencies ore clearly to be congrotuloted. Not unworthily did they carry on in the And the monkeys? tradition of the onimols used in the Montgolfier balloon flights in 18th Century Fronce! Monkey Baker's feelings in the matter, she couldn't core less. 2 space journal As for �ZDENEK KOPAL was born in lifomysl, CieduloYokio, in 19U, ond was educated ot Charles Unive,sity, PrQgue; Cambridge Unh1enity, En;lond; and Harvard University. After finishing his work ol Harvard University in 1940, he was o research onociote ond lecturer at lhot college. In 1942 he became o reoseorch associate in applied mathematics ot the Mouochusetts Institute of Technology. During World War 11 he worked for the United Stoles Novy on o •�dol project. Since the war he hos served os o consultant to the­ United States in various capacities, including membership on the Notional Advisory Council for Aeronautics, A member of the Astronomical So­ ciety, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, o fellow of the Royal Astronomi(ol Soc.iefy, and the lnternotlonol Astronomical Union, he hos bee" -since 1951 professor and head of the deportment of astronomy at the Univenity of Manchester. He is the author of An lntrodvction to tfte Study of Ecli,>tin9 Variables, Tfte Compvtolion of Elements ol Eclipsing Binary S ystems, Tables of Svpersonic flow of Air Arovnd Cones, and more than 140 technical papers in profenionol journals. The recent Lunar probe firings by both this country ond the USSR represent important steps in man's gradual penetration of inter­ planetary Space. Included in the instrumenta­ dies the •n possess a mag11tic field? By Zdeaek lopal tion package of the Pioneer I probe and re­ portedly in the Russian Mechta planetoid were magnetometers which were intended to detect and measure the Lunar magnetic field (if any). These instruments were designed to telemeter back to Earth information of basic importance for rocket novagation in the immediate neigh­ borhood of its satellite, as well as for orienta­ tion on its surface when the first intrepid travelers step out one day from their Space ship. As the October 11, 19 58 Pioneer probe (with the magnetometer) only went one-third of the distance (cislunar distance) separating us from the Moon and since the Russian Mechta telemetered results hove not been reported, we are still lacking direct information on lunar magnetism. However, several recent astro­ nomical investigations carried out in terrestrial observatories have thrown considerable light on the question of a possible Lunar magnetic field, and, in fact, may have gone a long way towards answering it in the negative. The method employed to do so is based on studies of Lunar luminescence, and appears to be of sufficient interest to warrant explanation for the general reader. 3 space journal �In order to do so, let us pause briefly lo answer the following question: what does the light of the Moon really consist of? As every school child knows, most of that which is visi­ ble to the eye is nothing but reflected sunlight, scattered by the rough Lunar surface in the direction of the Earth. As the scattering of light on rocks or dust particles does not affect its color, the spectral distribution of light so reflected should remain essentially identical with that of ordinary sunlight (though its coherence properties-such as polarization­ may be altered somewhat.) Most (in fact, over 90 percent) of the incident Solar energy will be absorbed by the Moon to maintain its surface at o temperature which, of lunar noon, may exceed 100 percent at the subsolar point. As o body thus hot, the Moon is bound to emit radiation of its own, but almost all of it is emitted too for in the infra-red to be visible to the naked eye. Most of the real "moonlight" is, therefore, lost to the human eye. It can, neverthless, be measured quite accurately by its thermoelectric effect; such measurements utilized for ascertaining the in­ stantaneous temperatures prevailing on any particular port of the Lunar landscape are accurate to within a few degrees. There exists, furthermore, another way by which the Lunar surface con, under certain conditions, emit light of its own; and that is by a process commonly coiled luminescence. As is well known, luminescence is the ability of certain substances to absorb light of rela­ tively high frequency and re-emit it in install­ ments of separate lower frequencies. In order to describe this mechanism in more specific terms, suppose that the atoms of a suitable substance ore exposed to radiation (wove or corpuscular) capable of ejecting electrons from their normal positions. Such o damage to atomic structure is usually quickly repaired by each individual atom's capture of another free electron from the neighborhood. Such an electron may occupy the "hole" left by the ejected electron in one jump-in which case radiation of the some frequency as that which caused the initial damage should be emitted-but it may also (under certain conditions) accomplish its movement in steps. In this case, each time it drops o step, it loses that amount of energy, emitting 4 space journal discrete quanta at each transition (the sum of whose energies should add up to that of the original disturbance}. The light emitted by such o cascade process is called the lumines­ cent radiation, and should be familiar enough to the reader. The beautiful color display of certain minerals (such as uranium salts} under illumination by the "block light" of on ultravio­ let lamp is an example of this process in ac­ tion. To the engineer, luminescence offers on important tool for modern lighting techniques; and most gaseous nebulae photographed by astronomers in the sky owe their luminosity to this process (under illumination by neighbor­ ing hot stars}. Does any part of the Lunar surface exhibit similar luminescence? This question, which for a long time hung in suspense, appears to hove been answered in the affirmative by re­ cent spectroscopic work by N. A. Kozyrev of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in the USSR and by J. Dubois of Bordeaux, Fronce. Their work, carried out independently and reported lost year, seems to leave but little room for doubt that some ports of the lunar surface, notably the system of rays spreading out around the crater Aristorchos, indeed exhibit luminescent emission in certain discrete bands. The method by which such results were ob­ tained is indeed simple. We mentioned already that, in the absence of any luminescence the visible spectrum of moonlight should be essentially a true replica of that of the Sun, with all its absorption lines faithfully re­ produced in the some intensity. A super­ position of Lunar luminescence would render the solar absorption lines as seen in the spectrum of the Moon shallower at the respec­ tive wove lengths, and this is what Kozyrev as well as Dubois claim to hove found and measured. The total energy emitted by the lunar luminescence bonds is, according to Kozyrev, of the order of 10 5 ergs per cen­ timeter second amounting to about 1 percent of the entire incident Solar energy. NASA-U. S. Army JUNO 11 vehicle and gantry crono stand poi.sed on launch pod ot Cope Conoverol, Florido. This vehicle sent o 13.4 lb. probe into orbit around th� Sun. (Photo courtesy of U. S. Army) ��while the light of the Sun (apart from 0ccasion­ al short-lived flares) is known to be remarkably constant. This all shows conclusively that the actual source exciting Lunar luminescence can­ not be sunlight itself, but rather solar cor­ puscular radiation-most likely protons­ which are known to be ejected spasmodically in bursts from disturbed regions of the soler surface, and whose impact on the upper atmosphere of Earth hos long been known to give rise to the familiar phenomena of polar aurorae. The Moon does not possess any atmosphere to speak of, and the streams of solar cor­ puscles impinge directly on its surface. "Lunar Sketch of Russian lunar probe, MfCHTA, resting on handling dolly. Note mognetomefer instoUed at end of probe. If this emission were stimulated by absorp­ tion of sunlight, it would be necessary to as­ sume that all its ultraviolet component is absorbed by the respective lunar substance in order to account for the intensity of observed luminescence; and this is most unlikely on physical grounds. Besides, even more reveal­ ingly, the intensity of Lunar emission bonds appears to exhibit Auctuatians from month to month by as much as a factor four (Koiyrev), The aerodynamic shroud, shown here, cover.s the probe and vpper stages of the JUNO II ..,ehid e . tPhoto courtesy of U S. ArmyJ 6 space journal �Artist's conception of probe-mounted proton preceuion while in orbit around the Moon. magnetometer measuring the magnetic field ourorae"-for this is what the phenomena reported recently by Kozyrev and Dubois ac­ tually ore-originate, therefore, right on the ground, rather than (as on Earth) high above it. Observations indicate, however, also an­ other difference between terrestrial and lunar aurorae which is of fundamental importance for the study of the hypothetical magnetic field of the Moon: namely, whereas on Earth aurorae occur also at night (because incident solar protons can be deflected by Earth's magnetic field), lunar luminescence seems al­ ways to cease as soon as the Sun has set be­ low, the horizon. This would indicate that near the surface of the Moon charged particles move in essentially rectilinear trajectories, which would not be true if any appreciable magnetic field were present. The lack of evidence of bendinq indicates that the in­ tensity of any magnetic field around the Moon cannot exceed but a small fraction of the intensity of the corresponding field of Earth. A second independent argument leading to the same general conclusion can be drawn from Kozyrev's recent work. As is well known from the observed time-lag between the cor­ responding Solar and terrestrial phenomena, the bursts of Solar protons travel through Space at an average speed of about 1 500 kilometers per second, and Kosyrev has shown that the stoppage of such a flux by the lunar surfoce is indeed adequate to account for the intensity of the lunar luminescence as ob­ served by him. However in the vicinity of Earth, the local terrestrial magnetic field is known to accelerate Solar protons by a factor of two to three. A similar acceleration at the Moon should, however, render the lunar luminescence to be four to nine times brighter than is observed. The actual intensity of lunar luminescence leads again to the conclusion that if (as is highly probable) the Solar pro­ tons arrive at Earth and the Moon in approxi­ mately the same numbers, their acceleration in the region of the Moon must be small, or nonexistent, indicating again that the hypo­ thetical Lunar magnetic field is not great. If the arguments of the foregoing para­ graphs are still somewhat tentative, it is mainly because the survey for luminescence of the visible lunar face is still far from being com­ plete. Not all of the Moon's surface, to be sure, can be expected to show luminescense for it is mainly the properly of substances containing atoms of heavy elements and these ore likely to be as rare on the Moon as they are on Earth. Needless to say, the observed charac­ teristics of the luminescent spectra should often be sufficient to identify the element, or even its compound, giving rise to these spectra. Thus Kozyrev claims to have identified the two 7 space journal �would certainly find a major strike across the intervening gap of Space. But, again, much work remains yet to be done before any such identification can be considered as really established. A distinct central peolc i.r visible in this photo of the Moon crater Tycho which is 54 miles aero.rs and hos 17,000 loot walls. /Photo courtesy of Armand Spitz) bright bonds observed by him al 3900"A and 4300 A in the light reflected by the rays around the crater Aristorchos with ordinary quartz-on identification which is, however, still highly tentative ond perhaps disputable on cosmochemical grounds. The same is true of Dubois's identification of his observational results with the luminescence spectrum of the mineral known as Willemite. The Willemites are well known and rich ores of zinc; and if such were available on the surface of the Moon in large quantities, the prospectors of the future This nearly lull Moon view shows Tycho as the center of a vast "system" of bright "rays" reoching oul in all di• rec-tiont, Note that the rays do not begin directly at the crater, but at a number of miles out from the rim. The true nafure of the "rays", sometimes coiled "canals", is dill a mystery. {Photo courtesy ol Armond Spitz) 8 space journal In conclusion, one additional consideration must be pointed out which may come to be of great importance for the absolute dating of events giving rise lo many distinct features of lunar surface throughout its long astronomical post. If, as Kozyrev conjectures, the material around Aristarchos is really quartz, it is well known from laboratory experiments that its luninescence could be effectively quenched by smoll admixture of iron deposited on its sur­ face. Now, like Earth, the Moon is continuously sweeping up, on its journey through inter­ planetary Space, a certain amount of dust containing a definite metallic content. In this way approximately 1 O-Ll grams of iron should thus be deposited on each square centimeter of lunar surface each day. At this rote of de­ posit, luninescence of quartz in a vacuum should be effectively quenched in some 50 million years. Kozyrev suggests that the crater Aristarchos and the system of bright roys diverging from it cannot be much older than 50 million years, possibly less; and the reason why similar systems of rays around other craters (like Copernicus, or Tycho, for in­ stance) appear to show no detectable lumines­ cence at present may be due to their greater age (a view supported also by their lower reflectivity lo ordinary sunlight). The results summarized in the preceding paragraphs may help to compensate the read­ er for some knowledge denied us by a fail­ ure of October's lunar probe to approach the Moon as closely as it was hoped. It may also demonstrate that, notwithstanding occasional failures, our knowledge of the fundamental physical properties of the Moon and of its surface continues to accumulate by diverse methods; and that, in particular, a great deal con yet be learned from astronomical ob­ servations which can be conducted from the surface of Earth (and, incidentally, at a trifling fraction of the expense entailed by the current lunar probe experiments). How­ ever, we do not hesitate to hope for greater success by future probes. �and the values of man D na �d N, Michael was born in Chicago, . � Hlmo1s, 1n 1923. He received his Bochelor of Science degree, in physics, from Harvard Uni­ versity; his Mauer of Arts degree from the Unil1 ersity of Chicago, in sociology; and hh doctorate from Ho,,..a,d University, in 1ociol psychology. From 19.C4 to 19.C6 he was on elec­ lroniu engineer with the U. S. Army Signal Corps and worked on rodor and signal communi­ <.otio1,s de.,.elopments. He hos been on advisor lo the Joint Chiefs of Stoff of the Deportment of Defeme and lo the Notional Science Founda­ tion. He is presently o senior reieorch ouociote tor Dunlap ond Auociotes, conducting man-ma­ chine systems analysis studies for lotge weapons sysJems. A member of the Federation of American Scienlish, he is oho on active n11�mber of the Sigmo XI honorary society, th• American Psycho. logic.al A.uociotion, and The Amedcon Associ­ ation for Public Opinion Reseorch. creature when it comes to changing his person­ al world view is a common experience verified by many laboratory studies. Moreover, most people attend carefully only to experiences which ore immediately significant in terms of their everyday life. People react to new ex­ periences in terms of their learned and tested mode of responding to the world. They per­ ceive in terms of their pre-existing values and beliefs. They try to mold new experiences into old contexts. If they do not fit that standard context, they are likely to ignore them alto­ gether. Or, if they can somehow alter these new experiences to fit their standard view­ point, the new experience may very well lose its unique implications and power. This does not mean that man does not change his values in the face of new experience nor that he cannot be taught to change them at a rate and in a direction more likely lo benefit him. But it does mean that the conservative and selective processes as such will persist. There 9 space journal �is every reason lo believe that man will look at the new horizon of Space through aid eyes -when he is not storing al some totally differ­ ent horizon altogether. With these important human tendencies in mind, let us look first at the period from now until the time when man has the technological capacity lo colonize Space on a large scale. What can we say about the impact of Space on man's horizons-his values and aspirations, his way of life during this precolonizalion­ capability period? In general, we must not expect much basic change fast in most places -simply because the unique and significant aspects of Space exploration are not close enough in conceptual content or practical side to that which is important to everyday living for most people. This might sound like an astonishing, not lo say ridiculous, statement in view of the amount of attention the satellites and the whole future of Space have received in the press, radio, and television. But the 10 space journal fact of the matter is that for most people the majority of news al best is simply news. It is novel; it is timeAlling; it moy be exciting, mysterious, threatening-but it seldom goes much deeper than that. At least it seldom goes deeper than a vague incorporation into some value system, unchecked for completeness, logical consistency or application to other problems. That is, when there is any response at all-and by no means is there always a response-one finds that the concepts are limited as follows: the Russian satellite is bigger; one goes to the Moon by rocket; Space weapons would be bad; we have got to beat the Russians into Space, etc. On the other hand, reality demands: what has size really to do with a satellite, or why take a rocket to get lo the Moon, or what would a Space weapon do that an Earth weapon would not, and so on. Usually from the public one gets no answer to these; or the answer is in terms which would apply equally well to a bigger �Russian milk wagon, or a bigger explosion anywhere. There is a deeper difficulty here than simply this ignorance and disinterest. To appeal to people and get their support, it must be done in terms which are meaningful and important to them. Hence, man-in-Space must be placed in terms of today's important perspective and values. And, this situation is further confused by the conflicting interests of various groups that find the opportunities for realizing their own interests increased by the leverage pro­ vided by threat-based and hope-based ap­ peals in terms of man-in-Space. Thus, in a very real sense, the present views of man-in­ Space are serving in some areas to reinforce rather than to change pre-existing values; e.g., a popular view of international relations as being no more important than a football score, a simple extension of warfare into a new geographic area, an admirable extension of technological knowhow (with the "how," as usual, unknown and uninteresting to the ad­ mirer), an appreciation of science as a good investment for a future material payoff (with science being a novel kind of stock market.) The eventual contributions of man-in-Space in changing the values and attitudes of society In this medieval conception of Space travel, the voyager has reached the vault of the firmament and is investigating the mechanics ol the heavens beyond. �This very otd pointing, together with the others shown here, were done by the French astronomer, Lucien Roudoux, for on article on the tidal theory of the end of the world. Here the Moon is seen com• ing closer to the Earth and gaining o larger ongulor diameter. (Photo courtesy of Armond SpitzJ As the Moon opprooches even closer it raises tides so high that virtually everything in the civilized wotld is engutfed e�cept a few lor inland cities. This would mean the destruc• tion of o vast amount of properly and pouibly lives, if Earthman could not temporarily move to on• other planet. (Photo courtesy of Armond Spitzl will occur through processes not unlike those which are leading to a growing popular under­ standing of psychiatry and the new physics. That is, the impact will be selective both in terms of the specific information introduced and retained by particular groups and in terms of the particular distortions and folklore which develop in others. And this will come about chiefly as a result of face-to-face con­ tacts and the resulting by-products of such contacts. The scientist associated with Space pro­ jects, being rare and being representative of new ideas per se, will be in demand socially in avant garde intellectual groups and for adult education lectures. Thereby the more p_hilosophicol-ond less precise-aspects of astronomy, Space technology and Space medi­ cine will become the new speculation, portly replacing, portly merging with the traditional subjects of terrestrial politics, psychoanalysis, and the prevailing philosophies. Here, the greatest impact will be from the gradual ab­ sorption of the ideas of the new cosmologies. And much in the manner that Freudian ideas filtered and ore filtering from these groups to 12 space journal When the Moon comes within Roche's limit it will begin to break up os shown hettt. (Photo courtesy of Armond Spitz) After the Moon hos broken up, the Eorth would hove acquired o ring probably very much like that of Saturn. (Photo courtesy of Armond Spitz! the rest of the population through schools, magazines, service agencies, etc., we con expect, over a period of time, that certain ideas and values about man-in-Space will become crude and popular commonplaces al some levels and subtle stimulants at other levels. Only gradually can there come to be new understanding and thereby new behavior and attitudes-much as the popular belief that psychoanalysis and sex are practically synonomous is giving way to on awareness in some quarters of the facts of nonsexual char­ acter neurosis and thereby to changes in values about child raising, mental health, etc. Certainly, we cannot expect a sudden and complete enlightenment in all sectors of our society and societies around the rest of the world. It hos never happened with any im­ portant ideas. However, there is a special group which may ploy a useful role in spreading the new values growing from the exploration of Space, and this is the children who play at Space­ man today. Whether or not they toke this interest with them beyond childhood remains to be seen. However, the unique fact in the �I-'• esent situation is that never before have children rehearsed a role that really will not exist until they ore adults. To be sure all of them will not fulfill this childhood role, but the foci that the reality lies ahead rather than in the past (as with cowboys and Indians) may stimulate them to retain a sensitivity for the various meanings man-in-Space can have for our future. Also, children have become one of the most convenient authoritative sources for parents and teachers on Sputnik ond reloted matters these last months. The serious adult attention they have received may be heady stuff-sufficiently rewarding to generate a lasting motivation among some to remain among the informed over the years to come. When, however, we come to the era of interplanetary colonization, the situation will have a very reol potential for dramatic change simply because then the opportunity to partici­ pate directly in the experiences of Space travel, or of leost by second-hand experience through the words and actions of persons who do, will make Space a significant part of everyday life. Hence, it must have its impacts on the attitudes and values that grow out of and channel everyday perceptions. But, even here, if we examine this circumstance more closely, it appears that the context in which Space colonization may fake place will prob­ ably itself determine the values men hold toward Space much more than Space will determine the values they hold toward life on Earth. Let us look at some factors contrib­ uting to this context. In the first place, the colonization of Space on the scale we ore implying requires a mode of Earth-to-Space propulsion which does not now exist. That is, it must be cheap enough to make it worthwhile tronshipping thousands of people and the necessities for the existence. Perhaps thermonuclear power, perhaps anti­ gravity will do, but certainly not the present chemical propellants. The point is that such packaged power has tremendous political and social implications for utilization on Earth, too. Such a powerful fuel might well make this planet a Heaven on Earth as for as power requirements for such a circumstance go. If so, why submit lo the dangerous and risky life of extraterrestrial pioneering? What are the re­ wards? Consider the picture of pioneers we usually depend upon to support our predic­ tions about future pioneers: they were fleeing poverty, injustice, or ways of life they disliked or were willing to take large risks. But can we imagine that a colony on the Moon will be set up by similar types of refugees, given the overall costs, the technology, and the sophis­ tication of present and future governments obout the motives of those they govern? With cheap power and automatized pro­ duction, we can wonder whether in fact there will be any destitute people left who at the some lime would moke good colonists. Further­ more, if the trend to prefer security to quick gain continues-and there is little reason to believe it will not-we may hove trouble re­ cruiting many colonists on the basis of that incentive, too. And, with the ever-growing population, fitted into on ever-growing urban environment and subjected to the homogeniz­ ing tendencies of industrial civilization, we may very well end up with a society which psycho­ logically and culturally prefers the close proxi­ mity of neighbors and the comforting surround­ ings of elaborate society to the relative isola­ tion and insecurity of colonial life for from #he "green hills of Earth." One can clearly detect this tendency in the frequent query, "Who would want to go to the Moon any­ how?" To be sure, there will be persons, even in such a society, eager to expand into new Space just because there are new horizons. But there may not be enough of them to re­ peat the historical image we all carry of the European pioneers to the New World. The Norsemen ofter all did not expand substan­ tially into North America when they had the chance. There are many societies not imbued with the culture value of mobility we hove 13 space journal �traditionally stressed here. And everybody who can go sightseeing does not-unless it becomes the socially desirable thing to do. Moreover, barring some unexpected break­ through, such cheap Space ship power is many years off. But in that time we can expect to see vast developments in other areas besides Space research: in medicine, physics, chem­ istry, geriatrics, genetics, psychology, with profound consequences for international poli­ tics, leisure, work, war and peace, and the values that invest these human commonplaces. It seems sure that the creation of artificial life in the laboratory will shake more men's world views than will the discovery of plant life on Mars. The accommodations of nations or supranations to the impact of population growth-which 1 00 years from now may reach eight billion-to the impact of extensive automation, to ever expanding urbanization, will vastly and deeply affect the outlook and conduct of mankind. Thus to talk of the impact of the colonization of Space as if it were to be the singular new or profound experience of man is a most unfortunate and naive as­ sumption. We can ask then, why would large scale colonization be undertaken? For political agrandisement or military security? If the power sources necessary for such colonization exist then certainly the impact of this power source on earthly matters will be so great that politics, nationalism, and military activity in the name of national policy will be so radically changed that we can't use our present depic­ tion of them as an adequate basis for pre­ dicting the forces behind the colonization of Space. To replace our waning natural re­ sources? Perhaps, but will raw materials be worth mining and growing on alien soil if we have the power to efficiently and profitably mine the seo and if we have a chemical tech­ nology rather than a metallurgical one? Overpopulation? This seems to be the most likely possibility-if there is no adequate switch to voluntary population limitation (and this seems highly improbable) and if people in large numbers prefer the rigors of coloni­ zation to the attraction of massive urbaniza­ tion. Our enthusiasms and high hopes for Space derive from our particular satisfactions with 14 space journal our way of life. These are not necessarily the satisfactions of our neighbor in this society or the others comprising our world today-nor will they necessarily become so far more than a relative handful of mankind. And we need to recognize this now lest we go racing off sinking a disproportionate amount of our human and material resources into Space de­ velopment on the justification that it holds the primary key to man's future. The primary key may very well lie in some small genetics lab­ oratory where one man on a $500 foundation grant is discovering how to control mutations. Or the key may lie in an electrode imbedded in a brain, stimulating decades-old memories with photographic sharpness. It leads one to wonder whether so many of our leaders would be convinced that the key to our future lies in Space if the Russians had come up with a variety of wheat that reached maturity in two weeks or a euphoria gas. And, therefore, one can wonder how long leadership will continue to see Space exploration as the place to put so much of our psychic and material energies. We have attended to some of the social and psychological factors which we can expect to affect the interaction between man-in-Space and society. Let us turn now to the question: Just what is it about the exploration of Space per se which is supposed to enlighten man, deepen his wisdom of himself, broaden his appreciation and thereby make him more fully aware of his potentialities? The immensity of Space? The view of Earth as a tiny sphere, one world, and a small one at that? New wonders? New scientific and aesthetic discoveries? Elim­ ination of earthly difficulties by their trans­ formation into the challenge of creating new worlds and fighting new environments? All of them, of course. But none of these is truly a unique consequence of the exploration of Space. All are equally possible and equally as evident right here on Earth, if we but look, and listen, and imagine. The immensity of the Universe is just as apparent in the atomic nucleus or a honey bee. Our one world has been obvious to thinking men for some years now. The bell tolled well before Sputnik and Explorer. Our precarious foothold in the cos­ mos is written in the rocks, in famines, in the depredations of the million-year-old cock­ roach. �It seems that what we really do when we look to Space as the new frontier and the AT LAST -The purifier of men's visions-what we really do is International Story of indulge in the primitive fantasy wishes of chil­ dren that somewhere there is a good fairy who will make everything right. And this time the good fairy wears a Space suit. It is too easy for man to confuse a rational desire to escape from Earth with an irrational belief that there· by he will also escape Earth's present and continuing problems, his conflicts of interest, his bottle within himself. ROCKETRY AND SPACE EXPLORATION By Andrew Certainly man's Space adventure can help but only if his adventures on Earth can do so psychologist is that we must somehow raise our level of education to the point where most men most of the time con appreciate and actively absorb the implications of knowledge and developments in a// areas sufficiently to let them enrich their personal philosophies. How Rockets Work And obviously this kind of education is only Those experiences ore earlier which supposed This huge book (almost a foot high!) tells you the complete history of rocketry-its origin. the "back­ yard" rocketcers of the 30's-the German V-2, and World War H's contribution. With 170 d.-amatic il­ lustrations and authoritative text, it explain,; in simple, nontechnical terms exactly how ,·ockets operate. Describes the Atlas. Titan. Thor, Nike, X-15, rocket airplane of the future, the Sputnik, the Vanguard, and the Explorers. to broaden and deepen men can be sensed by the poet, historian, and philosopher with very little traditional scientific knowledge per se. But they do require knowledge and apprecia­ tion of self, of the nature of man and of his creative quests as a creative quest rather A Glimpse of the Future This uo•lo-the-minute book looks a.head to rocket:; 1n·opelled b)' ions, nuclear energ)', und e,en light it.seU: to manned sfl.tellites and space er-aft: flnd t<.t the in• cr·edible e.,plortttioni:; of the univen;e that now appear within reach. than as simply preludes to materialistic pay­ offs. To build a society of enlightened citizens is a far more monumental task than building a colony on Mars. To build such a society re• quires on understanding of the behavior of men and an application of that understanding to the improvement of society. For those who want most intensely for man ta explore Space, the consequences of that exploration and the directions that exploration is permitted to toke depend ultimately on how soon and how well we explore man. The inward frontiers are as challenging, as dangerous, as rewarding, and as fraught with social significance as any of those beyond Earth. The future of the explora­ tion of man does not depend essentially on the exploration of Space but our future be­ yond Earth's atmosphere is most profoundly tied to what we learn about that expanding universe coiled man. Haley HERE IS the whole exciting story of modern rocketry from its earliest beginnings through World War II, right up to today's launchings of missiles and satellites. Here are the famous men and milestones in the development of rocketry . . . facts on rocket production in the U. S. and abroad, and a glimpse of the fantastic futuTe of Man's conquest of space. as well. Essentially what this means to a social mentioned G. President, lnternotionol Astronautical federotion profoundly to make o finer creature of him, in part a scientific one. Complete Examine it Free for 10 Days Simply mail coupon to examine book J<'REE. If not delighted with the book, return it; owe nothing. Other­ wise, send only $6.75 101· ea.6y installments, it you wish). D. Van ,Vo8trand Co .. Dept. 401, 120 Alex­ ander St., Princeton, N. J. ( Est. 18.48). tor 10 day� D. Van Nostrand Compar1y, lr1c., Dept, 401, 120 Ale1C:artder Street1 Prirtceton 1 New Jersey Send me-for 10 days' FREE examination­ llocketrJI A·nd Space F,,;1,loration. If not cle­ liifhted, I wiU return book; owe nothing. Other­ wise, I wiU remit $1.75, plus smaU shippinJt' coi;l, and $2.60 a month for 2 months. Nam•----------------PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY AddresS----------------- □ City______ Zontt- Stat.______ SAVE-Cbe<:k box if enclosing full J'laY­ ment ($6.76) with thi.s coupon. Then WE will pH.)' all shipping c.olilM. Same return­ for•re!und privilege applies. In. Can.ado: Address 0. Von Nostrand Company Ltd, 25 Hollinger Road, Toronto 16, Canada (Price slightly higher) 15 space journal �gateway to tomorrow by G. G. Horry Stine is lhe punident of the Notional Auociotion of Rocketry. After recelv­ n51 his devre. in physics from Colorado College in 1952, he spent o..,., five years ot White Sands Minile Range, whet• he worked in votl• ous phases of rocketry. Loter he was employed by the Mo,tin Compony ot Denver as o design engineer. He was one of the first rocket enthusiasts in the notion to voice alarm al the fOcket potential revealed by the Soviet ortiflciol solellite; os o result, this action caused him to lose his position with Mortin. Since thot time. he hos devoted his energies lo the field of model rocketry. He h pruident and ch ef engineer of Model Missiles, Inc., In Denver, Colorado. Stine Is a member of the American Rocket Society, a fellow of the British lnlerplonetory Society, o member of the Am.ericon .Anociotion for the Advonc•ment of Science, the .Authors' Guild, and the .Auociolion of Lunar and Plon•lory Observer,. .As o "porl�time" wriler, Stine hos p1,1bllshod books, factual articles, on.d h1,1"dreds of science-fiction stories. "Recovery Crew, stand by! Pad number one ready to launch!" The public address system announces the thirty-first test of the doy. There is a flurry of activity in range control and tracking stations. The fire control officer inserts his key. There is a momentary hush. Then, on its tail of smoke and flame, the mighty rocket leaps skyward-all the gleaming white "14 inches" of it. Most Americans are now familiar with the well-publicized U. S. missile and rocket test areas, the Atlantic Missile Range, the Pacific Missile Range, and the White Sands Missile Range. Rockets, missiles, Space and satellite lb space journal H a r ry S t i n e vehicles launched from these places are prob­ ing Space and extending mankind's frontiers beyond the atmosphere. But too few people have heard of Green Mountain Proving Ground, which is just as much a gateway to tomorrow as those "hallowed" spats listed above. Green Mountain isn't big-only 560 acres -and, in contrast to the three major missile test centers, it is located within ten miles of a major city, Denver, Colorado. It has launch­ ing pads, flight safety, optical instrumentation, communication nets, and all the other essen­ tials of a rocket testing area. Other missile testing centers often close down over week­ ends, but that is the time Green Mountain gets into gear. This diminutive rocket proving ground is used to test diminutive missiles. The largest vehicle launched there to date was 36 inches long and weighed 1 pound. The average missile fired there weighs less than 2 ounces, is about l 2 inches long, and reaches an alti­ tude of 500 to l 000 feet. Since its founding in November 1957, over 10,000 model rockets have been flown there. And the safety record is perfect! There has not been a single accident. This amazing safety record stands in stark contrast to the increasing number of rocket �accidents reported among amateur rocketeers over the nation. The record is even more amazing in view of the fact that Green Mountain Proving Ground is operated by teen­ agers. There is adult supervision, of course, but that isn't the whole reason for the excel­ lent safety record. Green Mountain Proving Ground is oper­ ated under the auspices of the Mile-High Section of the National Association of Rocket­ ry, a nonprofit organization backed by such well-known rocket experts as Willy Ley, Col. Charles M. Parkin, and Erik Bergaust. At the time of the founding of the NAR, it was realized that two things were needed among teen-age rocketeers. Safe, tested compo­ nents, and a means of reaching teen-agers to disseminate information. The emergence of model rocket components in the form of small, high-thrust rocket engines and model rocket kits satisfied the first requirement. The NAR was organized to satisfy the second one. The founders of the NAR in turn recognized the need for two elements in the informational area of the problem, two items which were totally locking in most other amateur rocket organizations. The first of these was a set of standards or rules for the teen-age rocketeer The missile preparation area ol Green Mountain Proving Ground is always o scene of great activity o.s members of tho Mile-High Section of NAR prepare their models for flight test. (Photo by KatzolJ In November 1958, Green Mountain hod its first onni• versory# complete with coke showing a model rocket diving into the sagebrush (in reality, there hove been no accidents in over J 0,000 model lounchingsJ. Left to right, Tho author, Art Ballah, Grant Gray, Chuck Olson, Norm Mains, and Bob Bruce. (Photo by KatzelJ to follow in making and launching his rockets. In essence, these standards would set limits within which the youthful designers could work. The second item was a safety code of tested rules, adopted in port from "big mis­ sile" work; this safety code would guide teen-agers within the limits of the launching and handling standards. The safety code come first because of the need for getting this information into the hands of youngsters to stem the tide of rocket accidents. A comprehensive set of standards was adopted later. Since model rocket com­ ponents were now commercially available, these standards also included competition rules which allowed youngsters to measure their own progress and achievement against those of others within a standardized frame• work. These things were not original concepts. They were borrowed outright from model air­ plane enthusiasts, who under the safety rules and competition regulations of the Academy of Model Aeronautics, have progressed at an amazing rate with a reputable safety record of their own. The reasons for the safety record of Green Mountain Proving Ground lie in the Safety Code and the standards of the NAR. Green Mountain hos worked from the beginning­ even before the rules were written, because the rules were tested there. 17 space journal �Although the NAR is o young organization, there is so much to tell about it that a whole magazine could be devoted to it. In fact, NAR publishes its own monthly newsletter The Model Rockefeer, which is sent to all members ond contains news items, contest announce­ ments, a question-and-answer section, and other items of interest. NAR also publishes "NAR Technical Reports"; examples of the contents ore illustrated by some of the titles of the NAR Tech Reports: "Basic Rocket Tra­ jectory Calculations," "Building o Range Fir­ ing Panel and Communications System," ond '"Project Eyeball, An Optical Tracking Sys­ tem." NAR has also established model rocket Aighl operations areas at locations other than Green Mountain. Peak City Proving Ground in Colorado Springs, for example, was set up by NAR members on land donated by the John Wong, Jr., of Denver, Co,orodo prepares o model for Righi at Green Mountain Proving Ground. Note th• voriou, conflgurolions, including ,cote model, of th• • big one,•. (Photo by Ka/zo() parks deportment of that city as a result of a city ordinance sponsored by NAR. Peak City operates along the same lines as Green Mountain, and boasts a perfect safety record, too. In the educational field, NAR has helped schools set up rocketry divisions for their science clubs. In Littleton, Colorado, where such a program is in operation, two NAR members this year won top honors for their work in developing a micro-miniaturized rocket telemetry system (FM-AM, 8 channels, 1 ½ inches in diameter, 4 ounces, 1 2 inches long, 100 mw output on 27.25 me.) complete with ground equipment. This spring, NAR started its first contest season, to culminate in the NARAM-1 (NAR Annual Meet # 1) ol Green Mountain Proving Ground in July. All this storied ot Green Mountain Proving Ground, and Green Mountain is still the top range in the NAR. But what hos it done besides proving that model rocketry under NAR sanction con be safe? An answer to this question may be found in the young men who built Green Mountain. Several of them will be starting college in the fall of 1959; they know and understand rocketry now, and they plan to moke oslro­ noulics their career. Others ore still o long woy from college, but they understand re­ search ond development; they con sit down ond pion a Aight test program, for example, and carry ii through. They hove learned optics, melerology, aerodynamics, electronics, thermodynamics, ond basic scientific disci­ plines-not from books, but from octuol ex­ perience. They hove supplemented their mathematics by putting it lo practical use. There is no doubt that ultimately the careers of young men are strongly influenced by experiences during their formative years. Green Mountain Proving Ground hos given its porliciponts experience in the field of rock­ etry. It is quite likely that they will eventu­ ally stand high in their chosen profession; ofter oil, they hove o head start. Lefs toke o look ot o typical doy ot Green Mountain. All the range equipment is porta­ ble ond is stored in Denver during the week. A half-mile of communication coble wos once stolen from Green Mountain, so range par- �They stand about 4 feet above the ground and hove stairways at either end. house is needed; during No bleck­ hazardous tests, everyone stands behind a foundation. Noth­ ing is ever fired which would require overhead protection. Since all NAR rockets require a system which destroys the aerodynamic sta­ bility before they come down and since all models flown ore extremely light, it's better to be out in the open where you con just step to one side if one comes down your way. Eight launchers ore usually set up on the main pod. If there are more rockets to be flown during the day than con be launched from a single eight-launcher pod, a second pod is set up on another foundation. But, since it is possible to fly and track 50 models per hour at Green Mountain, two pods are Scole model work of Green Mountain Proving Ground under NAR ruleJ produced thi.s Ryoble miniature replica of the Germon V-2. (Photo by Kotzo/1 rarely needed. All firing is done by remote electrical con­ trol. All firing panels hove safety circuits which include keys, guarded switches, firing lines shorted until the switch is thrown, and ticiponts don't toke chances any more. Rack­ eteers meet at a rendezvous point in Denver at 9:00 A.M. on Saturday morning. other interlocks. Each model ready to be launched is placed There on the ready pod atop a flight-test data sheet. ore usually two, and sometimes three, station This sheet lists the designer of the model, wagons loaded with gear. Then the caravan type of engine it hos, and other technical tokes off for Green Mountain, easily accessi­ details. ble by four-lane highway and paved roods, model and its sheet, places the model on a but still a good way out. launcher, and notes the launcher number on Upon arrival at the range, the communica­ tions crew starts stringing out the communica­ tions wire from a The launching officer picks up the bock-pack cable the sheet. This keeps the fire control officer from getting confused later on. reel, Once all launchers are loaded, the coll The instru­ goes out over the PA system, "Trackers, man mentotion crew sets up, levels out, and "ze­ your stations! Recovery crew, stand by! Pad ros in" the tracking telescopes. The launcher Number One ready to launch!" donated by on oil survey firm. crew sets up launchers, plugs in the firing panel, and checks out the public address system. The boys manning the telescopic tracking stations report in by telephone. "Tracking One manned!" Everyone then starts preparing his models. If a model utilizes a rocket engine other than "Tracking Two manned!" The range control point is usually next to a tested commercial type, it is removed to the the firing panel at Pad # 1. isolated Hazardous Test Pad, 100 yards from and control officer, on adult, takes his sta­ other operations and equipment. It will be launched at some time during the day by a The range safety tion and removes the firing panel key from his pocket. "Trockers ready?" trained crew under adult supervision and by "Tracking One ready!" remote electrical control. "Tracking Two ready!" The launching pads at Green Mountain ore "Trackers ready!" reports the fire control unused, concrete foundations of ammunition officer. First missile is from launcher One, magazines, 25 feet wide and 45 feet long. a gleaming white model of the Jupiter IRBM. 10 space iournal �20 Nole the range Rog on the right and th• A scolo·modol of tho US Novy ASP rocket 1wishos aloft conlrol. from Pod of Groen Mountain Proving Ground. All launching is done on a countdown by remote electricol onomomotor tower on tho felt. (Photo by KatzolJ The safety officer scans the area. No one is in a place where he could be injured. No cars ore coming up the access rood. There ore no aircraft in the vicinity. Everything is ready, and everyone is waiting. The safety officer inserts his key into the arming panel and turns it. "Range is clear! Panel is armed!" All conversation over the communications net is heard in the launching area over the PA system. The fire control officer throws the launcher selector switch. The countdown begins. At zero-time, the little model leaps off the launcher and rockets skyward. All eyes follow it. Trackers swing their instruments lo stay on ii-a difficult job with the 14-inch model boosting al 8 G's. At peak altitude, the re­ covery system activates, and trackers lock their scopes. The missile drops lo Earth. The recovery crew goes into action, chasing down the model to bring ii in lo be prepared for another flight; under NAR rules, all models must be capable of more than a single flight. The tracking stations report in, colling off the azimuth and elevation of the model at peak altitude as seen from their stations. Two stations ore always used, with more as backup if required. They ore on carefully measured baselines, surveyed by the boys. The angular information is recorded on the flight data sheet, along with weather data, such as wind direction, wind velocity, cloud coverage, tem­ perature, humidity, and barometric pressure. The sheet is then passed lo the data reduction crew who stand by with slide rules, trigono­ metric tables, and other calculators, ready lo reduce the tracking data to altitude informa­ tion. Meanwhile, other models soar up into the sky. Staged models ore flown, as well os models with clustered, solid propellant motors. Many experimental flights ore carefully docu­ mented with motion picture cameras; the film is later scrutinized frame-by-frame lo examine performance. Although the boys hove gotten their staged models up well over a mile, such an altitude is an unusual one in spite of the generally high reliability of the models. Since the safety criteria developed for Green Mountain places space journal #I �on altitude limit of 6000 feet on models launched there, the NAR members have em­ phasized achievements other than altitude. One of the most interesting activities is a payload competition. The NAR has developed a standard payload, consisting of a cylinder of lead ¾" in diameter and about J/8" long, weighing one ounce. The object of the competitive effort is to carry this payload to as high an altitude as possible with an engine of a given thrust and duration. The payload must be totally contained in the model, must be removable from the model, and must not separate from the model in flight. Careful design pays off in this event, which very closely duplicates the requirements of real rocketry. By limiting maximum altitudes through mo­ tor limitations, a great deal of interest is generated in scale model work. Where else could one find the following missiles being launched from the some pod on the same day: V-2, Little John, Jupiter, Jupiter-C, Thor­ Able, Asp, Pogo-Hi, Areas, Redstone, Ser­ geant, and Sidewinder? Careful research goes into these scale models, some of which have each rivet and weld line of the real thing. Many original designs show up each Satur­ day, too. Before allowing models of un­ proved design to be fired, the safety officer must be convinced by design data that they Eyes on the .skies, the author tle ffJ ond Norman Ma ins of Denver lrigh/J follow the Right of the rocket soaring up•ronge ot Green Mountain. (Photo by Kotze/J Tracking Crew locked onl One mon relays the count while the other tracks the rocket in Right with on 8-power surplus elbow telescope, mounted on a used theodolite base and tripod at Tracking Station #2, Green Mountain Proving Ground. The youthful engineers hove learned to paint their models for maximum visi• bility; to apply roll patterns so that motion picture films may yield maximum data. (Photo by Kotzel! are safe and stable in flight. Some strange birds have appeared at Green Mountain. Give a boy any hobby-type rocket engine that works, plus some basic design information, and he'll have no end of designs. However, he soons learns which ones work-and, more importantly, at Green Mountain he learns why. Green Mountain Proving Ground is prob­ ably as important to the nation as the "big missile" ranges. The same holds true of Peak City Proving Ground and the other NAR flight ranges. Today's missiles are being tested by today's engineers at Canaveral, Vandenberg, and White Sands. But at Green Mountain, tomorrow's missiles and Space ve­ hicles are being born in the minds of tomor­ row's Spacemen. It's being done in a manner which brings to life the NAR motto: "Safety, Knowledge, Enjoyment." The first man to walk on Mars is possibly flying his model rocket on some NAR proving ground today. Green Mountain was the first. It is truly a gateway to tomorrow. Editor's Note: Many readers will want te start their own rocket clubs. If you are interested in further information on this subiect, tbe National Association of Rocketry is waiting to help. The NAR is also ready and willing to assist science teachers who are eager to incorporate rocketry into their curricula. If you want to communicate with the NAR, Write to Rocket Club, P. O. Box 94, Nashville, Tennessee. We will forward your com­ munication to NAR. 21 space journal �itfiVP. �/vJ-iiv AN AMUSING STORY• ABOUT THE ACTIVITIES OF A TYPICAL FAMILY• LIVING IN THE AHAZING WORLD OF THE TUTUP.E \£, HE FUTURE IS A WIDE OPEN FIELD IN WHICH ANY IDEA WITHIN THE REALM OF PRES­ ENT DAY IMAGINATION CAN BECOME REALITY. WHAT TODAY IS ASTOUNDING, WILL TOMOR­ ROW BE COMMONPLACE. r;JJ OWEVER, FREDDY FUTUREMAN IS NOT THE HANDSOME, RUGGED FEARLESS HERO TYPICAL OF TODAY'S SCIENCE-FICTION STRIPS, BENT ON DISCOVERING AND EXPLORING NEW WORLDS. HE IS SIMPLY "MR. AVERAGE GUY", LIVING IN THE AMAZING, BEWILDERING WORLD OF TOMORROW. HIS IS THE FAMILY OF THE FUTURE, AND THE STRIP PRIMARILY IS CONCERNED WITH THE DAY-TO-DAY ACTIVITIES OF SUCH A FAMILY. � ASICALLY, THIS IS A "FAMILY" STRIP, SET AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF THINGS TO COME ....... 22 space journal �� \' � IJ I �reoction -----� D In order to prevent delays, all reaction moil and menu• scripts submitted to SPACE Journal must be addressed to SPACE Journol, P.O. Box 82, Huntsville, Alobomo. Similarly oll subscriptions or inquiries concerning sub• scriptions must be addressed to SPACE Journal, P.O.Box 94, Nashville, Tenn. Dear Editor, I read your spring issue of SPACE Journal and was very pleased with it. I thought it hod to be good because it was written by such outstanding authors and scientists. Of special interest to me is the article "Life on Other Stars." I read it thoroughly, not under• standing half of it; but some of it mode sense. I hove read other books on this project, but I'm still not convinced about it either way. According to this article there is some form of life on about 100,000 different planets. As a boy of 14 I hove read o lot of books on this subject, but J still am confused. I hope you can help me. J con not see why there could not be life on Venus or Mon. No one hos discussed these problems. In the coso of Venus, it is too close lo the Sun lo support life. While in the cose of Mors, ir is too far away from the Sun to support life, ••• Whol do you think about the ftying saucer conspiracy? John Palermo Syracuse, N. Y. Sooner or later all deeply Involved and com­ plex Mientiflc lnve•tlgations Into cosmography turn to philosophy for answers. For example, what do you mean when you say "life?" Are you think• ing of life in anthropoid terms or in bio-chemical terms? AJ you know, scientists now are somewhat puzzled by the behavior of certain large molecules -they appear to be living. So the an,wer to your first question hinges on what you mean by life, To the •cientht the amoeba, the lowest and most primitive form of moss, and man are all alive. All evidence points toward the fact that certain low types of vegetation exist on Mars. Therefore, life on Man I• probable-if you accept the scien­ tific view of life. The theologian would probably Insist that life, within a more parochial senae, consl•h of three kinds: vegetable, animal, and man, the dlttinguishing factor between animal and man being the soul, Even so, he would recognize vegetation as a form of life. So from either view, life on other planets seems probable. As for the ft·ying saucer conspiracy, it sounds romantic and exotic, but there is no reason to assume that they either exist or that they are from Outer Space. Editor. Dear Editor, I would like to express my appreciation for the many flne articles which hove appeared in your magazine. The vision, and farsightedness of your many contributors is mosl refreshing and sets an example for other mogoz:ines to follow. 24 space journal The ortidc in your lost issue on relativity, while it is well wrillen and accurote, hos produced a reaction in this reader which is slightly less fovoroble. This is only because I am one of those unfortunate individuals who do not shol'e Prof. Einstein's views on relativity. I have hod my own theory of relotivity since 1953; ond, not• withstanding, I betieve that my differences may be expressed. Thomas Optical and Engineering Co. Doytono Beoch, Flo. Williom T, Thomas, Jr. Director, Physicol Research In brief, Mr. Thomas believes in a corpuscular theory of light and feels that the velocity of light is not constant for oll observers, Rather, he thinks, the obsarved velocity would depend on the relative velocity between the light source ond the observer, Editor, Dear Editol', I believe it would add lo your usefulness and in• crease your circulation if you added an "original" sec­ tion for independent thinkers on scientific subjects (laymen preferred.) Many subscribers, like myself, hove original thoughts which if published might be amusing in the main, but a smoll percentage might be diamonds in the rough for the over-wrought men in whose charge lies the responsibility for the progress of the United States in Space ..•. Somerset, Mass. Jomes A. Daniels Without deprecating the validity of Mr. Dan• iels' suggestion, SPACE Journal must defer. We recognize that the ,harp-rowelled imagina­ tions of lay writers in all ages have spurred the mount of science into new and unexplored fields, and, perhaps, have often predestined scien­ tific advances by foretelling them, However, i n today's complex, specialized world o f science even the scientists themselves have difficulty in com­ municating with one another when they are in different flelds, Therefore, we feel that there is o need for the scientists in vorious fields, especially those related to Space travel, to tell each other and the layman what is and what is going to be­ this a, opposed to the layman telllng the sclen• tists.Perhaps the Space-roving scientist has over- I I �taken and passed the laymon with his Space-rov­ ing imagination. At any rate SPACE Journal's ob­ lective is to inform the loyman through presenting in the layman's languoge tho scientists' ideas on Spoce. Associate Editor. As a writer I' £ 3" ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELESCOPE 60 to 160 Power-Famous Mt. Palomar Type! An Unusual Buy! Dear Editor, Space and See the Stars, Moon, Planets Close Upl lhe caught up in o consuming intere5t in fantastic ramifications of our rapidly expanding knowledge of our Universe, I would like to join the discussion regarding the inclusion of science 'I. /7 7 orA�. Saturn. em bled fiction and poetry in SPACE Journal. •.• The historical function of the artist, and thol includes the writer, hos been to interpret and present the Uni� verse in such terms as to enhance the understanding and enjoyment of the reader or beholder. At a time when the layman is disturbed by the presentation to him of o Universe of such scope and siz.e that it staggers his comprehension, lhe role of the writer/artid hos ochieved on importance unequalled in history. SPACE Journal should not lose sight of its objectives by devoting its pages solely lo scientific analysis. Dollas, Texas Barbara Guild A famous scientist (name sent free upon r·equest) once remarked: "The difference between a scien­ tist ond an engineer is that a scientist reads poe­ try." This statement was not mode lightly; and, at least as far as most domestic engineers are concerned, it seems true. That truth is revealed as much in fiction ond poetry as in the logorithmic J A Ready to use! You'll see the Rings the fa-.cinating plsnet Murt11. huJle era.tors on the Moon. Star Cluisl�rs. Moons of Jupiter in detail. Gnlaxie-s I Bquatorial mount will lock on both oxes. Aluminized and over­ conted 3'' diameter hi,"'h-:speed C 10 mirror. Telescope com" equim>ed with a COX eyeoiece and a mounted Barlow Lens, K"iving )'OU 60 to 160 power. An Optical 1-'inder Tel�scope, e.h ..•ays ao es�ential, is ahto included. Sturdy, hsrdwood, wrtable tripod. Valuable STAR. CHA RT and 272-pag<" ..Handbook or Heaven�." Stock No. 85.050�118. 5%9.95 Postpaid. '91 , .. Re0ectina: Te?estope-up to 270 Power Stock Xo. 85.006-HB $74.G0 F.O.B. Barrinirton. N. J. TWO-STAGE ROCKET TOYSimple, safe-<lemonstrates principles of jct rockets. Uses water and air as fuel. First stage soars up 200 to 300 ft.-then 2nd stage is automatically released, going still higher. A 2nd stage satellite is also in­ cluded and may be substituted. Made of Butyrate plastic. Set includes fuel supply tank and air injection pump. Stock No. 70,157-HB $2.98 postpaid We manufacture tht Salellh• hleS<opH uttd at Moonwof<h Stations 1h,augho1,1t Ameri,a. Order hy Sto,k Ho.-Stnd Chttk a, M.0.-Sotisfaction or monty bocld WRITE FOR FREE GIANT CATAL06-HB Over 1000 Optical Bargains truth?" Well, the truth is that our readers, by and ,ve are Astronomical Telescope headquarters! 96 page cata­ lui,r showR huge selection of Microscopes, lJ1110.:u1u,�. Sntellit.e Seo�. Solar Furnaces, Infrared Sniptrt;t"'OPC'.J, Telescope Camerll-8, Camera Holder •ttachme,nts. Ma�n1flers, Lenset, Pris.ma., etc., optical parts and accessories. large, do not want fiction in the magazine. The EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO., tables and learned journals is not denied. But the cynicol may point out that Pilate osked, "What is BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY majority of them say that when they want to rood space Action they will buy a book by Roy Brad­ bury or Arthur Clarke. However, we have been sneaking in a little poetry on the off chance that some engineer might read it and remark: "Say, you know that makes sense, even though it does rhyme." Associate Editor. Start with the next issue 1 I SPACE Journal. Become a regular subscriber. Read the only magazine that covers the field of space completely. Written in language underslood by the layman as well as the scientist and engineer. Fill out the enclosed card and send it in today. GIVE ME A PIN, THEY'LL WANT PROOF! 25 space journal �meteorites * United States The International Astronautical Federation has set up a committee to define air and Space jurisdiction and to formulate rules on such jurisdictions. The committee is headed by Professor John Cobb Cooper, on internationally known lawyer, and is composed of members from all notions in the federation. It will submit its findings and recommendations to the Secretory General of the United Notions. * Recent observations mode with the Mt. Palomar 200-inch telescope indicate that the rote of expansion of the Universe may be decreasing ot the outer extremities of Space. Spectral studies indicate that the farthest observable galaxies are speeding outward at about 1 / 5 the speed of light. If the Universe were exi,anding uniformly, the roles of recession of these systems would be greater. * The Notional Association of Rocketry plans to hold its first annual meeting in Denver, Colo­ rado. The four-day event will begin on 16 July and will utilize the facilities of the association's 560acre Green Mountain Proving Ground, a fully instrumented range for use of the association's mem­ bers. Approximately 20 different model rocket competitions are scheduled. * United States Mrs. Robert H. Goddard (right) cuts the ribbon at the formal dedication of the God­ dard Wing of the Roswell Museum during ceremonies ot Roswell, New Mexico on April 25. Mrs. Goddard is the widow of the late Dr. Goddard lo whom the Wing is dedicated. Robert Goddard ( 1 882-1945), Massachusetts­ born physicist, successfully conducted some of He his early experiments near Roswell. achieved many "firsts" in rocket research, any one of which would assure him of the title "Father of Modern Rocketry." Looking on are Dr. Wernher von Braun (left) and Army Under Secretary Hugh Milton. (John Foster, Roswell Doily Record) 26 space journal �* The General Electric Campany recently completed a mock-up of a Space capsule which could carry a man into outer Space. It is presumed that the capsules could be used with existing guided missiles. The interior of one design has been fitted lo the contours of the pilot himself. In the view shown below, the pilot's seat and instrument panel are illus­ trated. The aft end cover of the capsule has been removed to show details. Professor Hermann Oberth, the "Father of German Rocketry," recently arrived in Germany after four years of service with the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in the United States. He has been awarded a pension by the German government. Upon his arrival in Nurnberg, he was greeted by members of the German Rocket Society. In press interviews he stated that he plans to continue his theoretical studies in Space travel and to complete a book on the philosophical aspects of life. He olso commented favorably on SPACE Journal and cited it as an excellent magazine dealing with the Age of Space. * * France The Association for the Advancement of Aeronautical Research (a French organization) will hold its second international congress on rockets and intercontinental connections in Paris during June. Papers on hy1Derballistic techniques in aerophysical research, design of manual control sys­ tems for Space vehicles, turbulent re-entry heal rote predictions, and other subjects will be presented. * A plan to observe Venus from o position 82,000 feet above Earth's surface hos been formulated by Audouin Dollfus, o young French scholar and authority on Mars. His ingenious observ­ atory consists of a magnesium and aluminum capsule, equipped with a telescope, a spectroscope, and other instruments, attached to a group of 96 balloons, of the type used in meteorological investigations. His first attempt in Moy was o partial success. * Poland * Russia The Polish Astronautical Society reported o rising membership and o growing interest in as­ tronautics al its annual conference last May in Warsaw. Papers were presented on rocket propulsion and fuels, oeroballislics, guidance and automation, methodic research planning, Space travel, and Space biology and medicine. Professor V. S. Gostev, of the Academy of Medical Sciences, stoles that the Soviet Union has produced and is testing a number of drugs for human beings travelling in Space. He told the news­ paper Medico/ Worker that Space travellers probably will need sedatives, drugs lo stimulate circulation, and preparations affecting lung and skin respiration. * A recent Russian report that a volcanic eruption hod occurred in the Alphonsus Crater of the Moon brought mixed reactions from leading astronomers. Most scientists hove long believed that the Moan's craters were mode by the impact of meteors. However, Dr. Dismore Alter, former direc­ tor of the Griffith Observatory, has made an observation that lends to confirm the Russian finding. Dr. Alter reports the presence of "seeping gases" and an obscuration an the western side of the 70mile-wide floor of the Alphonsus Crater. 27 space journal �-* 9 . . Russia On May 1, 1959, the London Times published the following Reuter News dispatch: "Moscow, May 1.-Dr. I. Shklovsky, a Soviet scientist, said in an article in Komsomolskaya Pravda quoted by the Tass agency today that no methods found in nature could explain either the origin of the two moons of Mars, Phobos and Demios, or the strange movement of Phobos. He suggested that they might be artificial satellites put into orbit by intelligent beings who might hove inhabited Mars 2,000 or 3,000 million years ago. Dr. Shklovsky said that Phobos and Demios differed from the satellites of other planets by their insignificant size and their extreme closeness to their planet. Phobos, moreover, showed an­ other striking dissimilarity from all other satellites in the Solar System in that it hod deviated in the post few decodes from its calculated orbit by two and a half degrees, and its movement had accelerated. This meant it had gone closer to the surface of Mars. "The some thing happens to satellites launched from the Earth; they ore slowed down by the resistance of the Earth's atmosphere and consequently come down and in doing so accelerate," Dr. Shklovsky said. He had concluded that Phobos was hollow, and that as no natural body con be hollow, it must be on artificial satellite of Mars. He suggested that Demios might hove had a similar origin. Though they might weigh 100 million tons or more, their construction would present no insolu­ ble engineering problems for beings endowed with intelligence. At present the atmosphere of Mars contains almost no oxygen and consequently there might no longer be any highly developed life on Mars. But apparently 2,000 or 3,000 million years ago the situation was different. Many astronomers consider that there was then oxygen in the atmosphere surrounding Mars. Probably in that period there were on Mars beings endowe:l with intelligence which attained a high degree of culture. Another Soviet scientist, Prof. Aleksander Kazancew, believes there is mounting evidence that there is today intelligent life on Mars. He theorizes that the tremendous explosion in Siberia 50 years ago which destroyed several square miles of timber was caused by the crash of a nuclear­ powered Spaceship. * * For the Russian man in the street, there is a new means of getting rid of "that five o'clock shodow"-provided he hos the rubles-the latest thing in electric shavers: a model named Sputnik. A one-stage rocket, reported to have been launched in August 1958, carried two well­ trained dogs to an altitude of 450 kilometers. The total payload is supposed to hove been 1 ½ tons. According to the Russian news sources both dogs were recovered and apparently suffered no ill effects from their journey into Space. * * It is reported that the Russians now hove on the drawing boards plans for a Space vehicle with a velocity of 17 kilometers per second. It is a two-stage rocket said to be able to reach Mars in only three months. East Germany The East Germon magazine Wissen und Leben (Knowledge and Life) states that during 1957 the Russians sent 1 2 dogs into the atmosphere in rockets which went up to 1 20 miles. These tests mode it possible to send Loiko up more than 1000 miles in Sputnik II. * Reports indicate that the Soviet Union has more than 66 tracking stations within her own territory for gathering data on the Sputniks. These stations ore primarily at universities and techni­ cal schools, and are manned on a volunteer basis. 28 space journal �Reviewed by Ra I p h E. J en ni n gs C u rt i s E. Ra me y M. Raymond Survey of Space Low. Stoff Report of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration. 60 pages. Washington: U.S. Gov­ ernment Printing Office. The Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration of the House of Repre­ sentatives has devoted considerable effort to publication of a "Survey of Space Law." The clarity of discussion is commendable in view of the complexity of the subject. This survey presents a strong argument to the pragmatists who toke the position that promulgation of a Space code should foMow the actual oc­ currence of de facto regulatory problems. Unless we reverse the traditional concepts of low evolving with life and dealing with prob­ lems after they have arisen, it is quite likely that we shall be faced with "the giddy cycle of low chasing power and never quite catch­ ing up," a possibly fatal position to occupy in Outer Space. It seems to this reviewer that necessity dictates our having a considerable body of Space law thinking available at the time power to regulate and enforce becomes a reality. The Darwinian concepts of "struggle for existence" and "survival of the fittest" are not wholly inapposite here. The survey treats both ancient and relatively new legal doctrines which might possibly have some utility in guid­ ing present-day thinking on Space law, i.e. "cuius est solum, eius est usque ad coelum" (he who owns the land owns it up to the sky), Mare Liberum (Law of the Sea), Res Ipso Loquitur (The thing speaks for itself), etc. The survey also discusses the doctrine of "sov­ ereignty" with its many ramifications. The concepts are admittedly "groping posts" for books some framework of reference and may have little or no place in effective Space law codes but must be presently resorted to because of our limited knowledge of conditions to be encountered in Outer Space. It is refreshing and somewhat comforting to see that we and our Congress somehow appreciate the magnitude of the problems we shall eventually face in Outer Space and ore devoting intensive thought to onticipoting ond compromising the expected problems. It seems terribly important thot we do so. For if we merely project present internotionol conflicts upon the larger screen of the cosmos, the human family will undoubtedly face its gravest danger since the down of creation. This reviewer heortily recommends the serious reading of this survey by all people but especially by scientists, lowyers and states­ men. -Curtis E. Ramey There Is Life On Mars. The Earl Nelson. 151 pages. Illustrated. New York: The Citadel Press. $3.00. Certainly one of the most attractive fea­ tures of this book is its price. In this age of high publishing costs, it is rare indeed to find a worthwhile book for $3.00. And it is even more rare when the book is as worthwhile as this one. Price notwithstanding, the best feature of the book is the evident sincerity and objec­ tivity with which the outhor wrote it. He believes-most convincingly-that life does exist on Mars. And it is hard to refute him, for he defines life in the most exacting and scientific terms. Life, for the author, is rather a deterministic bio-chemicol complex. If the reader is willing to accept this view, then the rest of the book follows a neat and logical 29 space journal �Heres a lull scientific report order. In other words, the difference between man, moss, and microbe is quantitative rather than qualitative. Thus the lowest lichen cling• ing to a rock is os alive as the man who crushes it under foot as he walks. So, too, the microscopic germ that in the end fells man. Much of this informative book is given over to the ecological aspects of life on Mars. For this reason the first four chapters will be especially interesting to those readers of SPACE Journal who were stimulated by John \iulley's widely acclaimed article "The Pur­ pose of Mon in the Universe" (Summer, 1958). Particularly noteworthy in this respect is the chapter titled "What Is Life?" But the real value of this book lies in the fact that it sums up what is known about Mars in a language which the average or general reader can understand. Recondite <Dealing on space flight-its past, present . SPACE FLICHT Satellites, Spaceships, Space Stations and Space Travel with what is abstruse; characterized by pro­ found scholarship.! words and terms are al­ ways defined for the nontechnical and nonprofessional reader. -M. Raymond Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia. Third Edition. 1,839 pages. Princeton: D. Van Nos­ trand Company, Inc. $29.75. The third edition of Van Nostrands Scientific Encyclopedio is a superb reference book. Covering everything from aeronautics and astronomy to statistics and zoology, this hand­ some one volume edition contains over 2,00,000 words, I 00,000 definitions, 14,000 separate articles, and 1400 illustrations. Twelve pages are in full color. Never was it more important to have available for finger­ tip use a single volume that offers a re­ liable, understandable guide to science in the Space Age. This new edition, bringing together between one set of covers the equivalent of a multi-volume science library, is a book to be kept on the shelf with the few basic volumes that ore used everywhere for essential day-to-day reference. The world of modern science has in the past decode pro­ gressed swiftly across hitherto impassable barriers. It has penetrated every phase of life. It is impossible for the layman (or scientist, for that matter) to keep abreast of develop­ ments in all fields. This encyclopedia would be on exceptionally valuable addition to anyone's library. -Rolph E. Jennings 30 sp ace journal . . and future! Bv CARSBIE C. ADAMS President, National Re search and Development Corporation, Atlanta , Georgia NOW-the exciting and factual account of what is involved in space flight -and how our scientists and engineers ore bringing us into this new era-is given by ex­ perts. From man's earl lest skyward thoug hts to today's ACTUAL plans for flight in apace .•. the men, discove ries, and technolo�cal ��: �e;_ es responsible are now brought be!ore you In a strl Ing 1 The tr eatm ent Is soundly technical, fully annotated, and !asc l t rt/�!f:1 � li!fi���chlng conc epts and the growth re l fgf �e��� � Her e Is an lntPgrated picture or the ways In which t he mam• nelds that l end their knowledge to astronautics are workin g togeth e r to make space !light a reality, You learn about th e contributions made by: ---ffl.ate,ials --cistro physlo -spou meclidne �ommunlcati..u -ttitph ysiu -<.hemistry -,sycholoty -ond oth,r fi1l1h Dr. Wernher vo n Braun says 1 hl re g!r}�fn �g�t �t !1ft ;i;�• �it!� th e stature or one or the rew gr eat classics on this rasclnattn;. �,·ee and many-faceted sub ject." H thorough \y covers th e t h eori es, met hods, equipment., and pivotal :Je11-cfa'J scl enttnc and human !actors­ !or everyone with either a !unc ­ tlonal or gene ral Interest In any Gxa111i11ctlio11 as pect or t he development or prac tical space flight. gf �-----------------· I McGraw-HUI Book Co., I I I I I I 327 W. 41st St., N.Y.C., Dept, SJ-59-2 Send me Ada.ma· SPACE PJ.tGHT ror 10 dan· e:nm . lnatlon on IP· 1nonl. In 10 dan ( will remit SG.50. plu, few ctnta dtllYtry, or rtlW'n book postpaid. (We pa, deUrtry tl' J OU remit wilb tblJ cou pon-um• return l)l' l•lleire.) I For nr1eu ouhlde l.'.S.. I write l!cOraw-Htll lnt'l., N. Y. Name Addren en, ..... ,... Zone St.ate .•. , ... Company Poldtloa •.......... , ., .. ... SJ-St•t I L---------------------------! �is time the • • m1ss1ng Ii n k? PART Helmut Hoeppner (left) wot. born in UcH ...uab, Turkey, 1n 1911 ond attended lhe fechnicol Academy, Chemnitz, Germany, ond the Technical Unn•ersity, Dresden. After groduotion, he wo1ked for the Klemm Airctoft Company in Stuttgart, Germany, He served o short tour in tho Germon Luftwaffe and then become on onociote of Or. Wernher van Broun ot Pe-ene­ munde, where he wo,ked on the development of lhe V-2 ond other rockets. He become on engineer for the Messerschmitt Aircraft Company, Augsburg, and hel� to develop the ME-163 and ME-262 jet airc.roft. From 1951 to 1954, h♦ was employed by the International Business Machine Corporation In Stuttgart. In 195,, at the 1ug­ fil•shon of Dr. Wolfer Oornt>.rger, he come to America as on ooronouticol engineer for th• Sell Aircraft Corporotion, 8uffalo, New York, In l 9!j6, h• joln•d his former co-work•n ot Peenemunde ot fled.do n e Ars.nol in Hunuville, Alabama. He is pr•sentlv o Senior Scientid for Adronoutics with the Chrysler Corporation in Detroit, Michi­ gan. A m•mber of th• G•rmon Rocket Society, the British Interplanetary Societv, ond the Ameri­ con Rocket Society, he hos published many articles ond reports in the Aeld of astronautics. I. Spencer Isbell (right} is o native of Bir• mingham, Alobomo, and oltended the University of Alobomo, where he majored in both mechani• cal and aeronautical engineering, Since 1951 he hos been employ•d en on Aero n outicol En;i­ n:er ot litedstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama. He presently serves on the technic.ol sto" Office of Director. D•v•lopm•nt Op•rotions Di• vision, Army flollistic Minile Agency, He is a member of the American Rocket Society, the British lnterplon•tory Society, the American As• io :�: 1::,:;�,, th o :51��::��;0� ;�c7!ty� � 9ce ,is :� e ci n the editorial staff of Alfronoutico/ Sciences lhview and is editor of SPACE Journal. Why shouldn't we admit it? Whenever we attempt to unify ou r present knowledge in the Natural Sciences to provide an acceptable overall picture (Unified Field Theory), we face a great dilemma. Why? Is it because there are still unknown qualitative phenomena or natural laws to be discovered before the miss­ ing link can be formulated? Must we conduct more quantitative research, compile more sta­ tistics, and look for more nuclear particles? Or should we re-examine the adequacy of our scientific methods and tools? 1-0ISPLACEMENT ENERGY by Helmut Hoeppner and B. Spencer Isbell The answer, which is neither new nor ob­ viously indicative of any new way to go, was given by Albert Einstein when he soid: "The answers to most, if not to all, of the unknowns in science can be found by the formulation and derivation of the knowns into their correct relationships." This sounds rather disappointing instead of encouraging, when we consider our intense, e:ithusiastic, and persistent efforts in research; our studies, developments, and technical achievements. "I studied Philosphy and Low and Medi­ cine, too, and also Theology, but here I am standing now, a poor fool, not wiser than before." -Faust (Goethe) We are turning out more and more and bigger and bigger progress reports, articles, b:,oks, and more speeches at more meetings, conferences, symposiums, etc. And the results of our "progress"? Nothing fundamentally new, just more quantity, more paper to file, more words. Quantity is already replacing quality in science, in philosophy, in society, ond even in our way of life. What is wrong? Is Einstein's statement, about deriving the unknowns from the knowns, wrong? Should we look for more new phenomena? If new postulates and laws could 31 space journal ��1 b. f I) l 2 B�-W--.3 f t IJ f LJ l )II INTO fNVllltONMINT Of AN INFINIH Rf.CllVING CAPACITY F r::' P.E I DEMONSTRATION OF ENTROPY ("AVAILABILITY" OF ENERGY) not be derived from the known ones, we would have ta wait until by accident we could stumble upon a new discovery-just by con­ tinuing or increasing our statistical efforts. Then we really would be caught in a dilemma. The probability that our already intense ef­ forts in quantitative research will accidental­ ly discover a new phenomenon which will provide the missing link in our over-all physics picture is far from encouraging. For example, we already have quite a number (32) of elementary nuclear particles which show, or do not show, individual charocleristics; but which, nevertheless, cannot be combined into one acceptable picture. The discovery of ad­ ditional new particles would only complicate and add to the present stale of confusion in nuclear physics. Very often, in scientific research, the quanti­ ty and even quality of a missing link can be logically predetermined. This has been at­ tempted in nuclear physics. When the old Law of Conservation of Energy is applied, a "par­ ticle" which has a variable quantity of energy and no mass or charge is required to satisfy the lack of energy balance (impulse input and output) in nuclear physics. This "parti­ cle" is sometimes called "neutrino". Other scientists call it a "ghost particle" because it does not really "exist", but "it shows its existence twice; namely, when it appears and when it disappears" according to a recent remark by Professor J. Robert Oppenheimer. This almost desperate search for a "ghost particle neutrino" is about to create a new type of philosophy, where anything (which in physics seems to be unexplainable) is possible and can be "explained". Currently the newest arm of the Metaphys­ ical Octopus is the so-called "Time Dilatation" Theory. This "fountain of youth" ideology advertises round trip Space tickets: Put $1 .00 in your savings account, take off, enjoy your trip around Mars, Venus, or Centauri, and return after a year or so to Huntsville, Ala­ bama, or any other place on Earth and you will own the whole globe. Just go fast enough and your own individual time, compared with the time on Earth, runs a hundred-or a thousand-or a million times slower. And you won't even notice this because every occurrence around you and !,raveling with you (including your watch), slows down in the same scale. Upon return from your "one year" in Space the accumulated interest on your $1.00 bank investment will have con­ sumed all the money on Earth. Just go fast enough! But before you contact your travel agent about a "Round Trip Space Ticket", let us analyze the third question al the beginning of this article; namely: "Should we re-examine the adequacy of our scientific methods and tools?" With all due respect to mathematics and to the great mathematicians whom we sincerely admire, we must place mathematics in a secondary position to pure logic as a necessary tool or method for "deriving and 33 space journal �formulating of the knowns into their correct Mathematics must be logical, but it is not in to learn that there are no cook books, no itself "The logic" and it cannot replace "The fixed methods, and no rigid lows and tools logic". We can which guarantee scientific progress. only use mathematics as to formulate The majority considers science to be a logical realtionships within the limits dictated dogmatic combination of the whole knowl­ stenographers use shorthand, and edge and scientists as persons who know very mathematically much (sometimes everything!). For the minority, derived results is relative to the value of the science, according to Socrates, is the total input. The limitations of mathematics were of what we do not know. All the scientific by the reason. initial The input of validity assumptions of once clearly illustrated to the authors by one equipment the minority has from its schools of of higher education, is its awakened and the pioneers of astronautics, Professor Hermann Oberth, when he remarked: "Mathe­ educated intelligence, matics also proves that when three persons ore siasm. However, in spite of, or perhaps be­ in one room and four persons leave cause of, that and scientific enthu­ its expulsion from the majority, room, then a negative (or minus one) person the scientific discipline of a few honest non­ is still in the room". conformists who apply reason and logic be­ Sir Arthur Eddington indicated the need to re-evaluate our scientific methods in his "The fore mathematics has always "moved the Earth." Philosophy of Physical Science" ( 1939) with In order to demonstrate the value of taking the following remarks: "If sometime someone an open-minded "second look" at our rigid would claim that he produces neutrinos, I scientific laws, methods and tools, and to just would have to accept this. But I always illustrate why it is not necessary that science would doubt that he ploys a fair game. He must resort to abstract philosophy for the would not be punished for producing neu­ answers; let us momentarily go back trinos, namely: For having violated the fun­ years to one of the greatest discoveries in damental rules. He simply invented a new 100 the history of science. At that time Helmholtz game by changing the rules, which, when ac­ formulated the law of Conservation of En­ cepted, helped to overcome a dilemma". ergy, which, as any "law" in physics, is an The answer to the question about the ade­ empirical law. Only a little later, Clausius in­ quacy of our scientific methods and tools is: troduced the concept of "Entropy" and Max­ No, they are not adequate! We must re­ well formulated "Displacement Current" as evaluate our fundamental assumptions. two kinds of restrictions to the energy law. The scientific dilemma is further complicated The law of Conservation of Energy says, by on unhealthy condition which is entirely simply, that energy cannot be created or de­ unscientific, even anti-scientific, and therefore, stroyed. In other words, the sum total of energy difficult to solve. This condition stems from a in division of the scientists of today into at constant. any transformation or transfer remains You can throw a boll and give it least two categories according to the methods kinetic energy, but you do not create the and to use for solving energy. All you do is transfer it from your scientific problems. body to the ball. This law is based upon a The majority of scientists (and not only constant energy and a state of equilibrium tools they prefer scientists) paid their tuition for what they 34 forgot most of the "pure" knowledge they learned in school, and who paid their tuition relationships". or balance. carried home from their schools in "block on Entropy is the scientific term for the "avail­ white". They bought all their scientific equip­ ability of engergy." The relation of entropy to ment, all their methods and tools from their conservation of energy extends all the way universities. And since they spent money for to the basic scientific question of whether the it, they keep it neat and clean and dog­ Universe is an infinite environment which al­ matically protect it against change. lows us to use up our total initial energy or In the other category, and unfortunately it only port of it, according to a final dynamic seems to be a small minority, are those who or even static equilibrium, which would be the space journal �final stole of o finite Universe. In any case, finite or infinite Universe, or finite Universe with another finite or infinite environment (transcendence), we ore continuously consum­ ing our "potential". And entropy, the availa­ bility of energy, determines the time for the universal occurrence. Actually, entropy con be defined as the consumption of time, or "time", itself.• In a closed system such as a finite Universe with an internal and initial "potential" and a finite environment or the theoretical model of a system shown in Figure 1-A losses its internal potential while the system is delivering work (energy), because of the non-reciprocal process of mixing or leveling. The loss of internal potential or "available" energy in a closed system is due to the time or period the system allows for the mixing or leveling to occur. In other words, the uni­ versal tendency of matter or energy lo mix or level is limited by the time it tokes in a closed system. When the balance in both the "transmitter" and the "receiver" sides of a closed system is reached, the delivery of work stops and a stole of equilibrium exists. Since all practical systems ore closed sys­ tems and since all closed systems lose their •Part II of this orticfe, oppeoring in lhe next issue of SPACE Journal, discuues "time" os the fundamental parameter in phy1ics and e.-ploins how it hos been incorrectly applied in the current scienfiflc debate over the .. Time Dilatation Theory". potentials and available energy in accord­ ance with the consumption of time or entropy, then the delivery of work eventually stops and a state of balance or equilibrium exists. This is the reason why it is impossible for man to create a perpetual motion machine. This shows that a closed system fundamen­ tally cannot actually deliver the total initial energy capacity. The amount of work a sys­ tem con deliver, or the amount of energy that is "available" from a system, depends on the receiving capacity of the receiver port of the system. It is evident that only by opening our system to on environment of infinite receiving copocity or, in other words, by providing on exchange between a specific system and an on infiinite environment (Figure 1-B) the total initial energy capacity is also the actual "available" energy. The second classical restriction of the low of Conservation of Energy, was discovered by Maxwell in the field of Electrodynamics. He found that the conventional equations which equilibrium did actually prove that there con were based on constant energy and a state of be no electric current. Yet, Maxwell knew that electric currents do exists, so he added a fundamental parameter• to the Conserva­ tion of Energy Low ond called it "Displace­ ment Current" in Electrodynamics. •Maxwell wrole the electric current balance as fo1lows1 H=1r (equilibrium) 1 (displacement current) +i. $1 LTANEOUS (CONTINUOUS THRUST/ PROCEDURE !nPARATED (TWO SHOT/ PROCEDURE �£ E IE="OCCURRENCE" fll°�RE 2 DEMONSTRATION OF DISPLACEMENT ENERGY (\E) IN ASTRODYNAMICS 35 space journal �teria, or even the definition of occur­ rence is "Change" or "Redistribution" or "Displacement" or "Time". In addition to the two classical restrictions to the Energy Law, the authors recently in­ troduced an analogy to "Displacement Cur­ rent" into the field of Astrodynamics. The new parameter, coiled "Displacement Ener­ gy", is also a "time" parameter since it is the energy required to move, redistribute, or displace pure energy during an occurrence (state of non-equilibrium). The formulation of displacement energy in Astrodynamics "brought home" to the authors the importance of the primary position that "The Logic" behind mathematics holds. The following considerations summarize the reasoning necessary before a mathematical derivation could lead to the confirmation of Displacement Energy in Astronautics. And, as we will discuss further on in this article, these initial thoughts may lead to a confirmation of our belief that "time" is the missing link to a Unified Field Theory. 1. "Displacing" is an occurrence for which "Time" cannot become zero The cri­ ro UCAPl 2. In order to establish an orbit al an al­ titude around the Earth there are only two possibilities. Either two instanta­ neous "shots" are required; namely, one shot at the Earth's surface and the second shot at orbital altitude. Or, one continuously powered ascent with atti­ tude control to the orbital altitude. This is simply because any unpowered mo­ tion in the gravitational field is a "free fall", which-when below escape velo­ city-falls back through the point of the last power cut-off. 3. It is self-explanatory that the (above) required two shots cannot, for the same mission, be combined into one shot, because shot No. 1 and shot No. 2 must be separated by a time element, which must be greater than zero. 4. Any approaches to an infinite Specific Impulse and a Mass Ratio of ONE are not applicable in any determination of a performance, simply because this would mean the undeterminable ap­ proach of zero times infinity, which is a "point" where no law or any law is ap­ plicable. l 100.q, 5. "Energy" which is required for a spe­ cific operation, must be, or must be made available, not only at the time but also at the "location" of the planned operation. o /OR, .. u 6. "Energy" in general mechanics is con­ nected with mass; and also in relativis­ tics, Energy has the property of mass, namely: Inertia. u z If?. POTINTIAL (NUGY (f.-) KINETIC INUGY (I,} DISPLAC(MINT ENUGY ( \[) PO.SSIIU FIELD CONTRIIUTIOH TO ,\( ().IR, 0 2 VHOCITY SOUARED ENERGY PROPORTIONS ( CENTERMASS COEFFICIE NT ) FIGIJ,[ l UNIVERSAL ENERGY PARAMETERS 36 space journal 5 �7. For placing a unit mass (m) into orbit around the earth at an altitude (h), the following energies ore required (as shown in Figure No. 2). a. "Potential Energy" (E,,) for placing or lifting the mass into altitude (h). This Ep is required at the Earth's surface. b. "Kinetic Energy" (Ed for accelerat­ ing the mass into orbital velocity (V k l- This E k is required at orbital altitude. c. "Displacement Energy" (ti.El for transporting, lifting or "displacing" of the Kinetic Energy (Ed from the Earth's surface to orbital altitude. d. The sum (�) of the total Energy re­ quirement for placing a unit mass into orbit is therefore: }:E= E1,+Ek +,\E With the above considerations and assump­ tions, it is possible to enter mathematical derivations• which, in a routine procedure, give the quality and quantity of the three required Energy terms. The mathematical equations and the Astronautical characteristics (see Figure No. 3) show the remarkable fact that displacement energy is a pure function of the gravity field because the equations contain only distance relationships ( +) and two constant factors, the radius (R) and the gravity acceleration on a body's surface (g,.). The equations are universally valid for any celestial body and for any center mass with a distance-square field dis­ tribution. (See Figure 4.) We learned in school the old law of Con­ servation of Energy, which says that within a closed system, with no exchange with the environment, the total Energy content remains constant, no matter what occurs within the system. Occurrences within a closed system are Energy Transformations, e.g. potential into kinetic energy, or in reversed procedures, etc. No Energy can be produced or consumed (cancelled); Energy can only be transformed. The Law of Conservation of Energy is, be­ cause of its simplicity, very convenient and easy to understand and it also simplifies the • Should the reader be inlerested in o mothemoticol derivation, he can request it through SPACE Journal. mathematical derivations in all fields of phys­ ics. Since it also leads, in most practical cases, to satisfying results, no one has ever desired a change as long as the results were acceptable. However, three changes, or at least restrictions, have alreody been intro­ duced, but they were not defined os changes of the energy law. They are conveniently handled separately from the energy law and they are considered to be additional param­ eters, which are required only in those specific fields and in specific cases. Figure No. 1 shows the delivery of work (or energy}. It is evident that, for establishing or maintaining a dynamic equilibrium within a 1 00 % efficient system exactly, the delivered energy must be put in again. This provides a continuous maintenance of the existing po­ tential which keeps the "availability" of En­ ergy or Entropy constant. This system does not deliver or consume energy in an exchange with environment, it just maintains its own equilibrium. If it has strictly no exchange with any environment whatsoever, which is the definition of a perfect dynamic equilibri­ um, then it strictly cannot even be noticed from the environment. This means that for a perfect equilibrium it does not make any difference whether it exists ("occurs") or not. It does not represent an "occurrence", which requires a changing entropy, which is con­ sumption of time. This discussion indicates that Energy and Entropy cannot be separated from each other and that the old Law of Conservation of Energy is correct only for a state of perfect equilibrium (perpetual motion). And since, os discussed obove, there are fundamentally no equilibrii, the Displacement of Energy term (.\El, which represents the compensation for the change of Entropy of any non-equilibrium, must be included in ony Energy Law as an inseparable part of it. We, therefore, sug­ gest the following change of the old Law of Conservation of Energy: �E=E (equilibrium) + t!.E (redistribution} =E,,+Ek+ \E The new Law of Conservation of Energy as given above is volid for any "occurence" and any system. The old low (�=Ep+E k) does not represent a true physical "occur­ rence". 37 space journal �Here stances obtain Energy are some of the favorable circum­ which seem to justify our efforts to universal acceptance of the new law: (a) Since we human beings constitutional­ ly belong to the macrocosmos, it is simpler for us lo see or to find macro­ cosmical relationships, without eventual­ ly losing the possibility of "logical" control within complex pure mathemat­ ical procedures. (bl We are just taking off into the "Space Age," where the mocrocosmos is being investigated with the combined efforts of almost all fields of physical science, including the microcosmical fields. (cl For this first time in the history of science, the various fields of natural sciences, which still are pretty strange to each other, seriously attempt to cooperate in the exploration of space. Actually, not the various fields of science, but rather the scientist, of different fields with different termi­ nologies have worked and lived, un­ intentionally, toward a separating specialization. (d) Since the models in atom and nuclear physics are mainly a simulation or copy of astradynamical systems, using the same field distribution, the same energy and impulse definitions and the same units of mass in orbits, etc., it seems to be the most logical thought to derive microcosmical relationships as far as it is sensible, first within our own world (the macroscosmos). Today we are able to create functional macrocosmical atom models by establishing artificial satellites and by accelerating these satellites up to escape velocities and beyond. This enables us to derive and to measure all the involved param­ eters, relationships and results during the simulation of a procedure reproduc­ ing universal occurences. In today's physics any Energy or Impulse term, if applied to the motion or redistribution of mass, (for example): y2 Ep=mgh or Eu=m- 2 or even Einstein's Energy-Mass equivalent, E=mc2, and now Displacement Energy, L'i.E, is the energy for moving, redistributing or displacing pure Energy. In fact, any auto- motive vehicle is using part of its energy lo transport and redistribute its own internal energy (fuel, etc.) along its travel path. The most typical vehicle for this is the "rocket," which is continuously accelerating and dis­ placing its remaining internal propellant energy to higher altitude (potential energy) or to higher velocity (kinetic energy), thus adding every impulse to the already reached velocity, or kinetic energy level. And the Basic Rocket Equation• is the fundamental and natural relationship for any automotive (self-pro­ pelled) transfer of mass into Impulse or Kinetic Energy. Since any occurrence in the macrocosmos, as well as in the microcosmos, is a continuous redistribution of mass and energy, mainly of energy, the procedure (see figure 2) of placing a unit mass into orbit by means of a rocket becomes the funda­ mental model and simulation of the universal occurence. There are, however, no pure rockets in nature, but by employing the rocket principle for the simulation, the various energy param­ eters involved can be separated and de­ termined very clearly. Since the gravity field and the field within the atom are assumed to have the same square-distance distribution, the energy contributions from the particle propulsion (or from hits or interactions by other particles) and the energy contribution from the field can be clearly separated. What actually makes this macrocosmical model so convenient for simulating and clarifying the occurrences is that here all energies or im­ pulses are given in terms of mass (propellants) with their accurately determined "inertia." This "Inertia of Energy," as mentioned above, could not be demonstrated and was therefore not considered in any nuclear Energy and Impulse Balance before. Since this, however, is absolutely necessary for a perfect balance, and since in fact the Displacement Energy, by considering this, leads to a perfect Energy and Impulse balance, Displacement Energy (L'i.E) the logical term in the law of Conser­ vation of Energy which unifies the marco and the microcosmical occurrences. Thinking this over, ii becomes clear why the *The Basic Rocket Equalion is written os M the vehicle's Moss Ration (M) is the V = eC where ratio of the takeoff moss m0 and the burnout moss m1; c is the exhaust velocity of the vehicle; V is the vehicle velocity relative to the takeoff point; and e is o natural growlh number having o vafue of 2.718. �research in Nuclear Physics cannot find any satisfying Energy and Impulse balance just by looking for more nuclear particles, hoping that one particle will be discovered which will exactly balance the energy input and out­ put. The experimental and analytical research, however, led already to an accurate defini­ tion of this "missiong particle". Physics here left the ground of realism in turning from rational intelligence into a meta-physical be­ lief in a "ghost particle, neutrino" with the following properties: Particle Mass Charge Energy Lifetime to unify the physical sciences. Now it setms that we cannot go much further in our loyal attempts to satisfy the old energy law without leaving what, up to date, is called "physics". Instead, we should try to reasonably change or modify the old regulations, at least in accordance with other regulations, which hove already been established. Here again, we should recall that these other regulations, which already exist, ore "Entropy" and Max­ well's "Displacement Current" and now "Dis­ placement Energy". Furthermore, the new "Displacement Energy" derived in Astrodynamics presents, in Netutrino --0 0 �le Stable Anti-neutrino O O Variable Stable Remarkable is this hope, namely that experiments might find a "particle!", which does not exist, but which indicates its "'exist­ ence" twice, namely when it appears and when it disappears, which has no mass and no charge, but which has "energy" and a stable lifetime. Seriously, should we continue to carry on research in this direction? The whole physics of today, including this metaphysical dilemma, is based on the old version of the Law of Conservation of Energy, which led to satisfy­ ing results only until Nuclear Physics attempted fact, all the qualities described above for the required neutrino-including the metaphysical ones! The only difference is that the "Dis­ placement Energy" (�El cannot be found as a "particle" of the atom, and being an irreversi­ ble consumption, it cannot be produced either, in accordance with Eddington. Instead, how­ ever, it provides a perfect energy and impulse balance, when incorporated as a new term in the old Law of Conservation of Energy, which, in accordance with Einstein, would be the link to answer the unknowns by formulating the knowns into their correct relationships. �V'/g,R�------------g,R------------+ 10.000R --�--.......,.---r---,----.-- ---,,.,----,=---.:=--.--,:::;;,.---w �C 11> 0 "u � 2., "' "' �C tu IOORf----!----5-!fh::-ll- � IORl---1--...J-+j�4-+--lo.t-----H...J-.1--: --P":.1---I J) 1/lr.-R-,B-u+,-o ,.,,-1----+Or MO NS � 11> u E 0 "' 11> 0 C 2 :5 10-//f. I FIGURE 4 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION Of OUR SOlAR SYSTEM 39 space journal �information free THE HISTORY OF TIME, Thi, in­ formative booklet written by Dr. Lloyd Motz, Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Columbia University wos inspired by Girord Perrigovx's Gyromatic 39-the latest contribution to continuous motion in wrist watches. Send for your free booklet that includes many interesting facts about time. 16•pages. The following souces of free and inexpensive materials ore mode avoil­ oble to the readers of SPACE Journal as a convenient ser'vice in obtaining worthwhile information concerning the ostro-sciences and other related topics. Studenh, leochers and parents will find many of the listed items of extreme interest and value. Send requests to the addresses listed below. Each company or institution represented in the column reserves lhe right to withdraw its offer whenever it sees fit. Civic orgonizolions, government agencies and industrial firms ore en• couraged to submit material for consideration for use in this column. Send moteriol to Arnold E. Hogen, "INFORMATION FREE," P. O. Box 703, Compton, California. Jeon R. Graef, Inc., Dept IF, 610 Fifth Avenue, New York 20, N. Y. THE MIRROR Of MT. PALOMAR, A SPACE: WATCH r,o.o. 40 space journal fY new door lo lhe secrets of the un· • verse hos opened. A door throug!, which astronomers will be able to ,.. 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, miles into space-twice as far as ever before. It is the giant telescope atop Mt. Polomor, so powerful that the canals of Mors, if there are any ,. �HOW LONG IS A ROD? This book­ let relate5 the origins of our slond­ ords of linear measurement from the doys of Egypt to the Space Age. HOW LONG IS A ROD? Color film­ strip for library use only, Illustrates the evolution of standards of linear measurement. MEASUREMENT HISTORY, Posters, 16" x 21 ". Companion pieces to "How long is o Rod," these posters illustrale the inch, foot, fathom, cubit, yo.-d� electronic 909es 1 and the inter­ ferometer, a modern scienific measur­ ing device. MAP OF AFRICA AND THE UNITED STATES: Send for your copy of this large and colorful mop of Africa and the United States. Excellent malerial for educational and reference use. Farrell lines, Dept. IF, 26 Beaver Street, New York 4, N. Y. 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Indiana University offers correspondence courses as a means of sludy for those who connol be in the classroom. Send for this cotolog for detailed Information. The INSIDE Story of Cape Canaveral and th e Air Force Missile T est Center (2) 53. Maps, ing. Astronomy, Engineering, and Survey- (3) 64. Scientific Tests, Standards. (4} 79. Aviation. (5) 81. Posters an� Chorls. (6) 84. Atomic Energy and Civil De­ fense. Superintendent of Documents, Gov­ ernment Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. Remember Doc. oc-t natural & don't do anything lhaf may excite theml \ -�� EJY f/l P. �� �- author of Vanguard and former Consultant to the Commander of the Air Force Missile Test Center. Here's a complete history not only of Cape Canaveral but of Air Force missile develop­ ment, including the ATLAS, NAVAHO and SNARK pro­ grams. Packed with dozens of facts never be/ore pub­ lished, including controver­ sial testimony by top Air Force and Army command­ ers. Many photographs and diagrams. $4.!l5 at all bookstores DUTTON 300 Fourth Avenue, New York 10 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY . . . . FREE FILMS, The following films are available on a loon basis to civic and nonprofit organizations. They ore 16mm, black and while sound films. The only charge involved is the return postage. II) Guided Miuile (2) Toward the Unexplored (Space trove!) (3) Moch-Busters (breok;ng the sound barrier) (4) Enter With Caution; The Atomic Age (60 min.) (5) Hiroshima (6) Ceiling Unlimited (60 min.) Outer Space) (7) The Crowded A;r (air traffic prob­ lems) The Prudential Insurance Company of Americo, Education Department (IF), Box 36, Newark 1, New Jersey. 41 space journal �lorium, Depl. IF. P.O. Box 27787, Lo, Angele, 27, Coli!. MEN of SCIENCE EORGE BEADLE SPENT A PLEASANT BOYl!OOP ON A FAR M IN NEBRASl<A.WERE IT NOT FOR A CRUSM ON MIS LAPV SCIEN CE TEACMER WHO 11-JSPIRED IIJ MIM A HUN<oER FOR LEARNIN6, (JEOR6E Ml6HT BE C'lc.61N6 THE C.OOP EARTH TO""Y. 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ON 1946, 8E.APLE 8Ec.AME MEAP OF CALTECH'S RENOWNED D1111s10N OF S,oLOGY.TlliS PAST YEAR ME ABAtJPON E D MIS NATIVE LAND FOR A F"OREl6N SMORC. HOWE\IER, THE SIIOF>E IS FRIENDLY ENGLAND, ANP THE STAY TliMPOQARY-A VISITING PROFESSORSIIIP AT OXFORD. will for the first time be photo­ graphed. This informative booklet includes many amazing foch about the famous 200" telescope miuor­ the world's largest piece of gloss. Excellent photographs ond drawings. Corning Gloss Works, Public Rela­ tions (IF), Corning, New York. (2) A Program Planner's Guide to Free Informational films-A selec­ tion of films of particular interest to adult organizations. (3) Samples of individual and sup­ plemental promotional material. Association Films, Inc. Dept. IF, 347 Mod;son Avenue, New York 17, N.Y. A PLACE IN THE SUN . • . THROUGH EDUCATION, In lhis 51poge booklet, you will find a com­ plete list of the leading colleges and universities in the United States. Each one has furnished ih tuition fees ond estimated yearly cosl of attendance. 42 space journal �� The Union Central life lnsuronc:e Cor.ipcny, Dept. IF. Cincinnati, Ohio. MEET THE MAN WHO CONThis inleresting QUERED SPACE! booklet tells about the Spocemaster Telephoto Unit. Inside this stream­ lined instrument is on ultra-modern, prismatic optical system that achieves the ultimate in bright, crystol-clear viewing. For vocations . . . nature study . . . amateur astronomy ond general observation, the Spacemoster is on outstanding all-purpose tele• scopeI 0. P. Bushnell & Company, Inc., 0epl. IF, Bu,hnell Building, 41 Eost Green Street, Pasadena, Calif. GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY ANO PLANETARIUM, This lree folder con­ tains information about this famous observolory and planetarium. Sched­ ule of event$ included. Griffith Observatory and Plane- THE RIGHT BINOCULAR, There ore many different types of binoculars and it is lo your advantage to select the one best fitted to your purpose. To help determine these needs, as well as open up new worlds of view­ ing pleasure, this informative book• let is dedicated. Mony illustrations and historical facts included in this interesting booklet. Swift & Anderson Inc. Dept. IF, 952 Dorchester Avenue., Boston 25, Moss. GLOBAL HARBORS, Foster lhon lhc speed of sound todoy . ... ,overing continents in a between-meals hop •.. that is. the pattern of the future for commercial aviation. And the fu­ ture is pl'oclicolly here. By 1960, jet tronsports will serve Los Angeles lnlernotionol Airport, carrying twice as many people twke as fast os lodoy's croll. Thi, I 0-poge bookie! includes many fads, drawings and mops. Deportment of Airports, City of Los Angele,, 0epl. IF, 5800 Av ion Drive, Los Angeles 45, Calif. VENTURE INTO SPACE, Wonl to know what it's like to travel in the vast unknown of Outer Space? Write for o free copy of "Venture Into Space," which hos been written by experts.In addition to a foteword by Or. Jomes l. Killion, President Eisen­ hower's chief science advisor, there ore charts of Space mysteries and on exciting and factual description of a Space expedition. The booklet pre­ dicts that atomic powered rockets .should permit trips of 25 million miles or so, and return in only a year or two of traveling time. The American Oil Company, Dept. IF, Public Relolion,. 555 Fifth Ave­ nue, New York 17, N. Y. �thrust control of solid propellant motors Horold W. Ritchey received his Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering from Purdue University in 193,4. In 19J6 he received his Moster of Science degrH in physical chemis• try. He oho holds o Doctor of Philosophy de• gree in physical chemistry, from Purdue Uni• vanity, and o Mosler of Science degree in chemical engineetlng from Cornell University. A former petroleum chemist with the Union Oil CoMpony of Colifornio, he served flve years in the U. S. Novy during World Wor II. During his naval service, he was officer-in-charge of the Harbor Defense School ot Son Pedro, Colifornio, ond wos on instructor ot the U. S. Novo I Post­ groduote School, where he taught, among other subjects, the mechanics and thermodynamics of jet propulsion. from 19'8 until 1949 he was on olomic reoctor engineer with the Cenerol Electric Co,nJ)Ony, In 19-'9 he jofned the Thiokol Chemical Corporation. He it now vice president of the company and lives in Huntsville, Alabomo. A member of Phi lambda Upsllon honorary society, Sigmo Xi honorory society, and the American Rocket Society, he received the C. N. Hickmon award in 1954 for austanding contribu4 tions to the field of solid propellant chemisJry. Dr. Ritchey is th• author of many technical papers and the popular orticle 1 "Rocket Moil to the Moon," which appeared in the spring 1958 Issue of SPACE Jou,nol. 3. Thrust modulation, which involves ad­ justing the amount of thrust at the com­ mand of some operational control. The basic principles underlying the attain­ ment of these three different types of thrust control hove, in the past, given engineers much trouble in the design of practical solid propellant motors. However, due to the re­ strictions of security, it will not be possible to give detailed accounts of how solutions to these problems were approached or to de­ scribe actual devices that may now be in use. First let us look at the problem of thrust vector control. It is needed primarily to maintain general direction and flight attitude (position of the vehicle with reference to Earth's surface). Moderate control may also be needed to correct for mechonicol mis­ alignment of the motor with the vehicle or for uneven thrust during the launching phase when the vehicle does not hove enough veloc­ Thrust control of any type of liquid or solid ity to permit aerodynamic control surfaces to propellant motor falls into one or more of the function properly. Thrust vector control may following categories which may be broadly also be needed at very high altitudes where defined as: 1. Thrust vector control or control of the the density of the atmosphere is not great enough to produce the required forces. In direction of the vehicle, a process which general, these applications do not demand involves generating a change in direc­ very large changes in direction. tion (pitch and yow) olong either of Thrust vector control moy also be needed two oxes perpendicular to the main line when the vehicle meets unstable aerodynamic of thrust; 2. Thrust termination, which means simply shutting off the thrust; conditions during flight. When these situations occur or when very high or varying wind di­ rection and velocities are encountered, then 43 space journal �thrust vector control may require relatively large side (yaw) or up-and-down (pitch) de­ flections and very rapid means of effecting them. ( ' - FIGURE NO. require vanes mode of materials to withstand high temperature and stresses. The problem of Anding materials which will stand up under high temperature and stress is partially solved by the use of the jetovotor as a means of thrust vector control. This de­ vice, figure 2, is the central zone of a sphere, mounted on gimbals, which dips into the exhaust jet in the direction desired, thus producing the necessary change in direction. Unlike the jet vane, the jetavotor is immersed only a short time in the exhaust jet. It does, on the other hand, have a relatively high drag loss during the time that it is used. Also, it is Mechanically octuofed jet vanes of the solid propellant motor provido thrust vedor control and roll control of the vehicle by operating within the e.w.housf. Such vanes, coupled with aerodynamic surfaces, provided similar controls for the Germon V-2 guided missile. One of the oldest methods of obtaining thrust vector control is by the use of jet vanes, a method used on the German V-2 and by sev­ eral contemporary guided missiles. The most common application of this method has four vanes positioned within the jet exhaust stream of the motor, as shown in figure 1. Often these jet vanes are mechanically linked to aero­ dynamic surfaces called ailerons or elevons. They have the advantage of providing roll control (prevention of the vehicle from rotating about its long axis) as well as providing for side movements when they are applied to a single nozzle. There are, however, two disad­ vantages to the jet vane: ( 1) large side move­ ments require proportionately large vanes and cross sections, both of which cause a drag loss in the jet stream; (2) the high velocity and high temperature of the exhaust gases FIGURE NO. 3 The fle,cible nozzle re pre sents o new and more sophisli­ coted form of thrust vector control i11 .solid propellant motors. Like the ;etavotor, it con not esloblish roll control in single motors. PLENU._1 CHAMBER FIGURE NO 4 Reversal nozzles, mounted around the main nozzle, offer o means of positiv@ @nd of thrust for the solid propellant motor. However, they require the addition of o plenum chamber lo the total weight of o solid propellant motor. FIGURE NO. 2 The jetovotor mork.r on improvement in the development of thrust vector control of solid propellant motor,. While it does not provide roll control for single-motored ve­ hicles, it does simplify the problems of thrust control. 44 space journal Yee-tor not capable of providing roll control unless the motor is fitted with multiple nozzles. A third device for attaining thrust vector control is the flexible nozzle shown in figure 3. It is adopted from a control common to liquid propellant engines where the combus­ tion chamber is mounted on gimbals. For the solid propellant motor use, the nozzle is at­ tached lo the combustion chamber by a flexi­ ble coupling and mounted on gimbals. It is �easy to see that this arrangement con produce changes in direction by moving the position of the nozzle. From a standpoint of drag loss the flexible nozzle is more efficient than the two methods described above. But it does raise mechanical problems by requiring seals against the escape of hot, high pressure gases. And, like the jetavotor, roll control con be obtained only from a motor with multiple nozzles. (I 1 •1 , • I 'I ,, I -J '"1 =:;�, 1 l f'U..L FLAME TCW F\JEL·R101ltHE OX'1GCN·fl04Ztf.t. FLCL 0>1.1D1UR FIGURE NO. 7 Schematic view of the burning process of a solid propellant groin within o rocket molor. The lac� of the propellant groin actually con� toins o "loom" zone, consisting ol liquened propellont ingredients and some evolved gos, Zone A is known a.s the dork zone which contains a "fizz" zone and a Rome reaction zone. Zone 8 is the flame zone which ;s luminous. FIGURE NO. 5 Reversal nozzles con also be mounfed on the forward or head end of the s.olid propellant rocket motor, but they mu.st be mounted ot on angle to ovoid damage to the vehicle by the hot exhaust goses. FIGURE NO. 6 A hypothetical arrangement for varying the ratio of the burning surfoce of a solid propeltont groin 10 the nozzle area as o means of obtaining thri.ut modulation. Such o device is one means of control­ ling the range of o solid propelled rocJc-et. In addition to thrust vector control, many vehicles require the positive end of thrust once they hove reached a certain velocity. This is ncessory to control their range. One method of achieving thrust termination is the generation of on exhaust jet in a direction opposite to the main propulsion stream. In this way, a reverse thrust is obtained that is equal to or slightly greater than the forward thrust. Such a reverse jet may be accom­ plished by reversal ducts connecting into a plenum chamber at the oft end of the motor, as shown in figure 4. Reverse ducts or jets con also be used at the forward end of the motor, but in most coses they must be mounted at on angle so that the heat and shock of their exhausts do not damage the vehicle or its payload. This method is shown in figure 5. In either case the ducts must be opened rapidly and at exactly the some time. Failure of all ducts to open together could easily cause unbalanced side forces which could re­ sult in the vehicle's tumbling or yawing. One possible disadvantage of this method of thrust termination is that the plenum chamber neces­ sary to feed the ducts would mean on increase in the weight of the motor. Another method of terminating thrust is the quenching of the burning propellant groin. This can be done quite easily by setting up a shock expansion wove inside the combus­ tion chamber of the motor as shown in figure 6. In this method a new nozzle throat area, A2, opens when the old nozzle is blown from the combustion chamber. The new nozzle FIGURE NO. 8 Graph .showing the duration of thrust tronsients which might be induced os o re.suit ol thrv.st termination in a solid propellant rocket motor. 45 space journal �throat area has an area larger than the old the burning, at combustion chamber tempera­ one, A1 • This sudden increase in throat area ture, occupy region B. Between region B and sets up a shock wave inside the combustion the surface of the propellant grain, there is chamber and puts out the burning propellant region A groin. fuel-rich gases formed by the burning propel­ A simplified and schematic view of where the oxygen-rich and the how this is done is shown in figure 7, which lant grain mix and react. During normal com­ represents a burning propellant grain consist­ bustion, heat is transferred from region B to ing of an oxidizer and a fuel. The products of Graph illustrating the chamber pressure-to-Kn. relationship. It demon• strates that as the curve small grows stee per, changes in the value of Kq. con effect large changes in P. Under cer­ tain conditions, this proves that auxiliary noz­ zles around a central nozzle can bring about thrust modulation in a solid propellant motor. .. 1----.--- ---;"'•,"'.n the surface of the propellant grain, through region A, at exactly the right rate to support the burning process as the surface of the grain is used up and recedes. When the nozzle, shown in figure 6, blows off, an ex­ pansion wove travels through the combustion chamber. ........ a..�:1 ��·a-,."''"'"' FIGURE NO. 9 The reacting gases in region A expand and cool the surface of the propellant grain to a point below combustion tempera­ ture. Naturally the grain ceases to burn. Under atmospheric conditions it is normal for the grain to reignite after several seconds. But at high altitudes, region A is so diffuse and the reaction is so slow that combustion energy is not generated close enough to the surface of the propellant grain to reignite it. There are two important advantages to thrust termination: the weight of the motor need not be increased, and the possibility ---------;,_; of tumbling is minimized because of the ex­ haust flow of the gases is still along the main thrust axis of the vehicle. However, there is one disadvantage to this method: it introduces FIGURE NO. 10 The blow-off nozzle actually quenches the lire within the combustion chamber of the solid prope'1ont rocket motor, thus pro­ viding a positive mean.s of thrutt termina­ tion. Preparations ore mode for costing a solid propellant motor in Thiokol Chemical Corporation's Huntsville, Alabama plant. 46 space journal a thrust transient, or momentary instability, that could be troublesome for a payload in the vehicle. Suppose, as shown in figure 8, that the motor has an initial thrust of F 1 and that the time interval T 1 is necessary for the mechanical system to blow off the nozzle. At �of thrust or-in other words-to obtain thrust Since chamber pressure is af­ fected by the ratio of the burning surface of the propellant grain to the nozzle throat area, any such method must be based upon varying the ratio between the burning surfoce of the propellant grain and the nozzle throat area. This relationship is shown graphically in figure 9. Perhaps a little painless mathematics will help clarify the meaning of this graph. ft is obvious that as the curve grows steeper the changes in P (pressure) become proportion­ ately larger as the changes in K n become smaller. K 0 represents the ratio of the area of the burning propellant surface to the area of the nozzle throat. The exponential n here is modulation. The U. S. Army's Nike Hercules ontioircrofl guided missile hos a solid propellant su.stoiner motor and o ,olid propellant booster motor. IU. S. Army f The U. S. Air Force's Thor Able vehicle is a three-,loge mi ss ile used for Nose Con e te sts and Spoc e e xp e riments. The mi ssile's third .stage hos o .solid propellant rocket motor while the first and second doges ore liquid propelled. IU S. AIR FORCE Photo) the end of T 1 the thrust climbs rapidly to the volue F2• Since the expansion wave travels at the speed of sound (approximately 3000 feet per second) through the combustion chamber, the duration of the transient T2 can be estimated by dividing the length of the motor by 3000 feet per second. The pressure on the head of the motor causes a mare or less level peak in thrust for this period. After this, the thrust decays rapidly to zero during the interval T3 • In connection with this transient force, it is also possible that other transient forces could be caused by the rela,.;ation of tensile stresses in the combustion chamber. Since thrust is approximately proportional to the operating pressure of the motor, a method for varying this pressure appears to be the best approach to controlling the amount ... Photo) �equation In conclusion, it should be obvious that it is (r=a1,P"), which states that the burning rate possible to combine two or more of these derived from the burning rate for a specific solid propellant is a function of thrust control devices in order to provide all the chamber pressure. In reality, the values of three types of control on a single rocket motor. n range between 0.2 and 0.85. Thus it can be seen that if n has a value of 0.8, then the exponent of K0 in our first equation becomes 5. It then follows that even a small change in throat area (or K0) will produce substantial changes in pressure and the amount of hot gas produced. All of this indicates that thrust All are relatively simple mechanical compo­ nents. And their simplicity increases their re­ liability. They demonstrate that the solid pro­ pellant motor has at last proven its worth in a field once dominated by the liquid propel­ lant motor. In short, the solid propellant motor has outgrown the names joto and booster. modulation by means of auxiliary jet nozzles, as shown in figure 10, becomes easier when the value of n in the burning rate equation is high and, therefore, when the exponent of Kn is high, resulting in a very steep curve for the K,.-pressure relationship. Naturally, it is to our advantage that we have a large number of solid propellants with a wide range of burning rate exponents. Mathematics and graphs aside, it is very impractical to vary the propellant burning surface. So, then, the nozzle throat area Basic principles and techniques af the missile engineering must be varied. But this does not mean that one nozzle with answer. a variable throat is the sciences Indeed, this arrangement would in­ volve many difficult mechanical and design surveyed, explained, and illustrated problems. The nozzle throat area can, how­ in this one convenient volume ever, consist of the sum of the areas of several GUIDED MISSILE ENGINEERING nozzle throats, the total of which can be varied. By using solid propellants having high pressure exponents, it is possible to get a wide range of control with very small varia­ tions in the total nozzle throat area. And, too, such an arrangement makes for a simple Edited by and mechanical device. The scheme shown in fig­ ure 10 illustrates one possibility. Four auxil­ iary nozzles are arranged around a central nozzle. Each auxiliary nozzle has a conical insert which can be moved in and out of its throat by an actuator device. It is easy to see how the total nozzle throat area of the motor is thus varied. With a propellant having a high value for the exponent of Kn , the size of the auxiliary nozzle throat areas needed de­ creases in relation to the area of the central or main nozzle. Thus penalties for drag or other inefficiencies of the expansion of ex­ haust gas in the auxiliary nozzles would have a very small overall effect on the efficiency of the vehicle. 48 sp ace journal ALLEN E. PUCKETT Auodate Director, :iy�lt•ms /J('1;t•lopmerit /.ol,orMorie1, Hu,hu Air�r<r/t Comporr.y SIMON RA!UO Presldtrrt, Space Ttv-lrnolo�y L,1bor�u,rit!$, A Dfrisi.on of th� Rt1mo•Wr,ol(lrfrl�,-. Corporatfon 512 pages, 6 x 9, 213 illustrations, $10.00 1>uLer systems, and other related ln this authoritative book e11.ch of the varfous missile engineering bCicnces is covered, with empha�i.8 on the fundamentals of the!:ie scienc•ei; as they apply to mi11sile ena-ineering. This broacl treutmcnt includes in­ dh idual Co\ erage of electronics, Q:uidnnce and navil:lativn, st.ability nnd control. Herodynnmics. airframe performance. radio and radar, com• aubjecv,. Each section is written by :rn eminently qualified expert ... each brings you jui,t the I.trktlical. :-;pe­ ciali-zcd information you need for a thurou2h undcrstandjn,t o[ how your own work relates to the tot::il J{uided missile engineering- 01•er11.­ tion. Send your order with remittance to: SPACE 316 HOWERTON NASHVILLE, TENN. �00 Name Streel ..... Cit11 C Zo-rn, SPACE JOURNAL StatE Titl6 or politi011 ................. C C Compan11 � Subscription & Gift Order Form Also enter the following additional subscription at the Gift Rate of only $1.60 for 1 yr. (in U. S.): :: Name Street ..... Cit11 Zo-rn, Stat� Title or polition ................. 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Out of this need to know came SPACE Journal, conceived by the Red5tone Arsenal scientists who launched the Explorer satellites. SPACE Journal is a progress report of a new, furiously expanding field. It interprets for the layman the theories and philosophy of space, interplanetary flight, astrophysics, and the actual accomplishments. Begun as an amateur effort, SPACE .Journal's first issue was 5,000 copies. An additional 15,000 copies were printed to satisfy the demand, and sold at the newsstands of twelve cities. A company was formed to continue its publication as a quarterly. The print order on the second edition was 100,000. There was an instant <lemantl for copies from government agencies, the armed forces, the press, educators and industry. TI> fill an order for Stars & Stripes in Europe, 2,500 copies bad to be taken off the newsstands. The print order of the third issue was 120,000. SPACE Journal is distributed nationally by the Independent News Company. The importance of space flight is emphasized by the current appropriations of $510 millions for space flight research. SPACE Journal is read by the people who sign the orders; the designers, engineers, manufacturers; the technicians and serviccrs who operate them, and a large portion o[ the educational world. l t offers a tremendous new and unduplicated potential for your adYertising effort. ,\nd SPACE Journal's general readers arc an enormous plus value, an audience appreciatiYe of your efforts, a potent nucleus of informed opinion; and include the young people who will be responsible for the future of space flight. SP.\CE Journal advertisers include: 'Brown Engineering Company, Inc.. . . Chrysler Corporatio11 ... General Astronautics Corporation . . . Glen L.Martin Company ...North American A11iation, Inc., Rocketdyne Division ...Precisio11 Engineering, Inc. . . . Reaction Motors, Inc . . . . Reynolds M.etals Company ... Robbins Aviation . . . Sperry Rand Corporation, Ford Instrument Company Division . . . Thiokol Chemical Corporation, Redstone Division. SPACE-Journal published by Space Enterprises, Inc., 316 Howerton, Nashville, Tenn. ADVERTISING REPRESENTATl\'ES: Ren Averill Company, 232 North Lake Ave., Pasadena 1, Calif. Telephone l\lUrray 1-9291 Mw-ray Bernhard Associates, 118 E. 40th St., New York 16, �ew York. Telephone OXford 7-5420 �serving industry and the national defense In modern plants strategically situated throughout the coun­ try, Thiokol is making many significant contributions to the art and science of rocketry. By developing new and better propellants (both solid and liq­ uid)-by designing and build­ ing improved power plants to utilize these fuels -by furnish­ ing essential support equipment ... Thiokol helps to strengthen the nation's defenses, helps push back our spatial frontiers. Engineers, Scientists: perhaps there's a place for you in Thiokol's expand­ ing organization. Our new projects present challenging problems and a chance for greater responsibility. �oe ® CHEMICAL .,CORPORATION ·. TRENTON, .Iii. ,•. • ElKTON, ·Mo. -�.HU • AV.. ., Moss fotNT, Miss.; 111GH� c1TY, UTAH • DENV:UU. "- J.. • . ... ___.,_.� .... -�· , "Ruistered tradem.ark of the Tllio•• C"-!Ut1:orJi1,atidn!'fa, Its liq,lld � _ "- ,- a:u.s am. Flli.. _,,__.-=--::a � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 2, no. 1, September 1959. Subject The topic of the resource Cold War Guided missiles--Testing Moon--Exploration Moon--Magnetic properties Solid propellant rockets Space sciences Space race--United States--History--20th century Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Von Braun Astronomical Society, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-09 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context vbas_space_journal_001_054 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Provenance A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource. This item is digital only. The item was generously lent to UAH by the Von Braun Astronomical Society for digitization. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/517/vbas_space_journal_055_116.pdf 666cb80156bd4f9fcd547072c1e77879 PDF Text Text JOURNAL n r. MARCH-MAY C A T E D PROJECT STAR • e T 0 e T H ASTRO -SCIE �r.i:-� WINTER • 50t LANDING ON PLANET ONE HUNDRED MILLION YEARS YOUNGER THAN EARTH WILL SPACE TRAVEL BE MANKIND'S SALVATION? LAWS OF PROBABILITY SHOW BEINGS ON OTHER PLANETS1 • HOW SPACE TRAVEL WILL ANSWER THE RIDDLE OF LIFE! 8 WHAT ARE MENTAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR SPACE PIONEERS? �ARMY's HERCULES MISSILE scores Perfect" against speedingjets High over the Gulf of Mexico off the Florida coast, a flight of F-80 jet drones streaked through the stratosphere in a simulated attack on Continental U.S.A. Forty-seven miles away a mobile unit of the Army's Hercules missiles quickly went into action. The first shot brought the leading jet down in fragments. The second, fired to pierce the first one's blast, was right on target. Its payload of instruments telemetered information on the blast to scientists and engineers at the firing site. In all, six of the Nike missiles were fired, and all six were "right on the button." Developed and built for the Army by Western Electric, Bell Telephone Laboratories and Douglas, Nike Hercules is already augmenting the earlier Nike Ajax in the defense of our cities. An even more advanced version, the much-discussed Nike Zeus anti-missile missile, is under development at Douglas and Western Electric. Not only did. recent tests prove the accuracy of the Army's Nike Hercules, but firing from a Field Army type mobile system proved its flexibility. 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(in SPACE JOURNAL u. s.) : Na·me ....... ... .................................................................................................... Street . . . . . . .. .... ... . . ... . . .. .. .. ... . . ..... . ... . .... . .. .. .. .... . . ...... . . . .. . ......... ... ... .................... City Zone Subscription & Gift Order Form State Title or poaition Company 8 New subscription O Renewal D Payment enclosed .Send bill for [1] [21 subscriptions I 1 yr. $3.00 I I .___.______.__.._____,_ _____. 6iqnalure _________________,.____ 5N-8' □ AH other countries �No Postage Stamp Necessary if Mailed in the United States. BUSINESS REPLY First Class Permit No. 2650 CARD Nashville, Tenn. SPACE JOURNAL P.O. BOX 94 NASHVILLE TENN. �JOURNAL OF THE ASJRO-SCIEHCES BOARD OF CONSULTANTS i ' t I Professor Hermann Oberth Helmut Hoeppner Dr. Eugen Sanger Frederick I. Ordway 111 Dr. Karel Hujer Ronald C. Wakeford Dr. Siegfried Gerathewohl No. 5 Harry H.-K. Lange EDITOR-IN-CHIEF MANAGING EDITOR Ralph E. Jennings ASSOCIATE EDITOR James L. Daniels. Jr. ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mitchell R. Sharpe, Jr. ASSISTANT EDITOR [DITO RIAL 2 2 5 9 14 GRAPHICS DIRECTOR 33 Harold E. Price EDITORIAL CONTRIBUTOR David Akins STAFF ARTISTS Thomas Spencer Con Pederson Ernest Harper Clarence E. Brown F. Harold Eaton BUSINESS MANAGER Richard T. Heagy PUBLISHER Hale Carey SPACE JOURNAL STATEMENT OF POLICY MECHTA AND OPERATION SCORE ARTICLES 24 LAYOUT DIRECTOR March-May 1959 Interstellar Space Ship Astra-Alpha Lands on Planet "X." Harry Lange's Imaginative Cover Combines Ideas from "The Ultimate Necessity of Space Travel" and "Project Star," Articles Appearing in This Issue. David L. Christensen Lee R. Moore, Jr. CONTENTS C O V ER ART DIRECTOR B. Spencer Isbelt I -4 Vol. 42 44 THE ULTIMATE NECESSITY OF SPACE TRAVEL Dr. Philip N. Shockey SURVIVAL IN SPACE Dr. Siegfried J. Gerathewohl REALITY, RELATIVITY AND COMMON SENSE James P. Gardner DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BUILDINGS ON THE MOON Dr. John S. Rinehart DYNAMICS OF LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE John Hulley RADIATION AND SPACE TRAVEL Dr. Jan S. Paul PROJECT STAR Helmut Hoeppner and B. Spencer Isbell FEATURES 4 OTHER BEINGS ON OTHER PLANETS? 30 METEORITES 43 MEN OF SCIENCE 32 SPACE POETRY : D E P A RT M E.N TS ·· 51 SPACE BOOKS 53 REACTION 55 INFORMATION FREE CREDITS Photographs on p. 39, 40, Yerkes Observatory; p. 37, 38, Nation al Geographic Society; photograph of Dr. Shockey by Keith Barrette; CONTRIBUTORS Mary Jane Day, M. Raymond, Anne Billings, Ruth Sauma, M oily Scott SUBMISSION OF MATERIAL The submission of material to this Journal is always welcome; short articles of 500 to 3000 words are preferred. Send the original on white bond paper, typewritten, double spaced; plus two carbons. Leave at least a one-inch margin on all sides and key all illustrations with the text. Photographs shou Id be 8 x 10 inches on glossy stock. 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PUBLISHING SPACE Journal is the official organ of the Rocket City Astronomical Association, Inc. a nonprofit, nonpolitical, scientific and educational organization in Huntsville, Alabama. © by SPACE Journal. All rights reserved. The Journal is published quarterly by Space Enterprises, Inc., in Nashville, Tennessee. Application for second-class mailing permit pending at Nashville, Tennessee. Space Enterprise, Inc.; Fred D. Wright, Pres, George J. Merrick, V-Pres, Richard Heagy, V-Pres; Thomas Schlater, General Counsel, J. M. Summar, Treas., L. E. Nordholt, Director. I space journal �ST ATEMENT OF POLICY The immediate and eager acceptance of SPACE Journal by scientists and technicians, business and industrial leaders, students and educators, as well as the general public, has brought into focus the wide recognition by the American people of the total challenge presented by the problem of Space exploration. Such general acceptance has placed SPACE Journal in the unique position of interpreter of ideas in all fields even remotely related to Space travel. It is the interpreter which translates the individual languages of the various specialists into a uni­ versally understood "layman's English"-this role is vital, since in this highly specialized age even the scientists are often laymen i(I fields other than their own. SPACE Journal is rapidly becoming the forum wherein the exchange of ideas among industry, science, education, and the public can be made. It is bringing to view the resources of all the arts and sciences bearing on the problem of Space ex­ ploration. Thus SPACE Journal as a universal medium of communication promotes the overall objec­ tive of the exploration of Space by helping the specialists to understand each other, the scien­ tists, engineers, businessmen, and educators to understand each other, and the taxpaying layman to understand them all. In such a role, so greatly expanded in scope from that of its beginning, and so vital to an uninformed public, SPACE Jou rnal has deemed it advisable to disavow any connection with the Army, Navy, Air Force, or other military and civilian seg­ ments of the government and to terminate its affiliation wih the Rocket City As­ tronomical Association. In pursuit of our broader aims, we announce that, begin­ ning with the next issue, this magazine w ill no longer be published as an official organ of the Rocket City Astronomical Association. We believe that this action will afford us the liberty of presenting all views without the re­ strictions that exist when a publication is acting as the voice of any type of organization. SPACE Journal will continue as an independent publication "dedicated to the Astro-sciences" and to the peaceful exploration of Space for the benefit of all mankind. MECHTA AND OPERATION SCORE The year 1958 closed with a significant advance in Space technology, but the year 1959 opened with an even more significant one. Th e old year closed with the successful launching of the United States Air Force's Atlas in Operation Score; and fhe new year began with Mechta, the spectacular Lunar probe of the Soviet Union, which is now in orbit around the Sun. However, more lies between the two events than a mere two weeks. Both Operation Score and Mechta bring u p a question about the direction in which Amer­ ican Space technology is advancing. While w e know relatively little about the technical details of Mechta (and there is no reason to assume t hat we will ever know the complete details), we know at least one thing about the Atlas and Operation Score. It worked. It was successful. The magnitude of its success was made all the greater because of the faith the Air Force had in its product. In the not too remote past, th ere were rumors that the Atlas guided missile, still having its growing pains, would be cancell ed in favor of a more "sophisticated" missile system. This attitude toward sophistication in our present missile and satellite design bears closer scrutiny. Project Vanguard is not so recently dead that one cannot remember the reason given for accepting it over the Jupiter-( was that it was more sophisticated. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary defines sophisticated as "Deprived of original sim­ plicity; made artificial, or, more narrowly, highly complicated, refined, subtilized, etc .• • . " Surely the very definition, when applied to our present position in Space technology, begs the question: What price reliability? Without belaboring the obvious, it does seem that there is more than a trace of sophistry in such views of sophistication when the term is used as the last word and final criterion for judging the absolute value of a guided missile o r a satellite vehicle. And Mechta should make us wonder, too, just how sophisticated it and the Sputnik vehicles are. 2 space journal ��OTHER BEINGS ON OTHER PLANETSt: Today man is looking out at the star-filled heavens with new curiosity, asking if tomorrow's space explorers may find other beings on other worlds. Based on science's rapidly expanding knowledge, the answer is "Yes." Eminent astronomers ore sure conditions suitable for life exist elsewhere. Our galaxy, called the Milky Way galaxy, contains roughly 400 billion stars and Dr. Gerard Kuiper, director of the Yerkes Observatory, believes that about 10 billion of the stars do have sets of planets orbiting around them. These are invisible to terrestrial telescopes because planets are cold masses emitting no light of their own. Assuming that our planetary solar system is typical, Dr. Kuiper estimates that there are about 100 billion planets in our own galaxy alone. In the entire universe there may be over 100 billion galaxies like ours and Andromeda. If other solar systems are like ours, about 1 0 ¼ or 10 billion planets in our galaxy are orbit­ ing in a temperate "life zone," at just the right di stance from their sun where liquid water, air and vital chemicals could exist. Where these ingredients do exist, so may living cells. "Life is probably the inevitable consequence of chemical evolutio n wherever physics, chemistry and climatology are right," Harlow Shapley of the Harvard Univer sity Observatory maintains. To support their conclusions, astronomers tur n to the mathematical theory of probability which holds it inconceivable that out of 10 billion "inhabitable" planets in the galaxy our earth is the only one where conditions are right for the evolution of life. In fact, though man's 5 ½ billion-year­ old earth is actually middle-aged by celestial standards, there may well be a multitude of other planets on which life has been evolving millions of years longer than on earth. If spaceships which approach the speed of light could be built and if man ever reaches distant planets, he may, on arriving, find himself to be just a primitive Johnny-come-lately compared to the local inhabitants. *Reprinted by permission, from LIFE Jon. 6 Mon's New World. Co pr. 1958 Time Inc. �the ultimate necessity of space travel BY PHILIP N. SHOCKEY good it is to go to the Moon, but the very fact that we don't know is reason enough to scien­ tists for going." It appears that the brilliant men who will make Space travel possible are too close to their subject to see its most practical side. Per­ haps a more reflective view can be provided Philip N. Shockey was born in 1931 and attended s<!condory schools in Pittsburgh, Pennsyl­ vania. After receiving his BA and MS degrees in geology from West Virginia University, he attended Cornell University and earned his doctorate al that institution in geology. He hos taught at both of these colleges. A former field geologist for the West Virginia Geologic and Economic Survey, he hos also been on assistant geological consultant for the South Pennsylvania Gos Company. He hos also worked as o geologist for the United Stoles Geological Survey. A member of the Geological Society of America and the Society of Sigma Xi, he is presently the chief geologist and vice president of the Penn• Idaho Mines, Inc. He lives in Salmon, Idaho, the western locotion for Penn•ldaho Mines, Inc. by some of the older sciences-geology for example. Geology deals with the history of Earth, and because this history covers billions of years, geologists are used to thinking in terms of billions of years. Apparently, most rocket scientists and engineers, like most people, conceive of time in such short duration as to be only an instant, geologically speaking. In conjunction with the other sciences, geol­ ogy has made increasingly rapid strides for­ ward since the turn of the present century. All News reports concerning this country's ef­ of this new knowledge makes more secure forts toward the conquest of Space are alarm­ man's climb to outer Space. ing in several respects. The most alarming subsequently, specific geologic contributions As will be shown fact, however, is not that we may be lagging appear to be: (1) more reliable and detailed behind Russia but that our engineers and interpretation of past Earth environments, (2) scientists have difficulty justifying Space proj­ more exact dating of past Earth events, and ects more ambitious than the establishment of (3) corroboration and augmentation of cos an Earth satellite. There seems to be general mogonic data. Although far more remains agreement that these satellites will have at to be learned about Earth than is known, some least a half dozen practical uses. pertinent conclusions can Yet, when a trip to the Moon or some more ambitious be drawn from available geologic and allied data. Space project is mentioned, the men who will Earth formed, more or less synchronously, make that trip operational must struggle for with the other planets of our Solar System justification of their plan. some five billion years ago. This figure repre­ For example, in a story from Newsweek magazine (Dec. 16, 1957, pp 66-68), the American have Rocket sent Society was reported to sents a currently acceptable age to geoscien­ tists. During the past few billion years, life President Eisenhower a 20-year evolved on Earth from nonplant-nonanimal project proposal the goal of which is to place ancestors of the most primitive marine organ­ American scientists on the Moon. This program isms; to terrestrial plants and animals; and, was authored by a 15-man group, which in­ finally, though not necessarily ultimately, to cluded man. Krafft Ehricke of Convair-Astro­ Therefore, it may be said that life on nautics and Dr. Wernher von Braun, the Army Earth has struggled for billions of years to missile reach the prevailing state of awareness. expert. Ehricke, architect of the program, said, "I really don't know what This state of awareness permits limited 5 space j0urnal �WILLIAMSONIA PTERANODON BRONTOSAURUS NEOCALAMITES LEPIDODENDRON HORSETAILS prognostication. FAN PALM COMPSOGNATHUS Cosmogonists have presum­ ably worked out the evolutionary development ASTRA--ALPHA CYCADELLA the present rate of progress, this would seem to be far more than adequate time. Human By projecting the Sun's frailty may, however, precipitate through war development, cosmogonists predict destruction another and successive Dark Ages so that of Earth through gradual "burning out" of the we can never achieve this goal. of stars like our Sun. Reportedly, effects from changes in the Thus, the question is no longer why must Sun will become significant within 50 billion years. 1 rather where do we want to go in Space. Whether figures and hypotheses cited here We must escape beyond our Solar System to Sun. are absolutely correct is not important. Cumu­ lative evidence clearly points to the fact that we become proficient in Space travel but environments approximating that of Earth. In this regard, some cosmogonists, perhaps Earth had a beginning some billions of years the majority, think that planet formation is a ago, and it shall certainly have an end some natural result of star formation. billions of years hence. possible that many stars, when formed, de­ This conclusion im­ That is, it is mediately answers the question of why we velop a system of planetary satellites like our must venture into Space. own Solar System. Therefore, it is reasonable When o.ne considers that our planet is to believe that there are many billions of doomed, at least as far as life is concerned, planets, because there are many billions of it is impossible to put meaningful value on the stars in our galaxy alone. titanic through forward billions struggle of of years. life on This Earth struggle, The nearest star to Earth is in Centaurus 4.3 light years away. Available telescopes whether conscious or not, appears agonizingly cannot define planets orbiting about this or futile if the gigantic mass contribution can not any other star. Fortunately, this contribution can be per­ petuated regardless of its development on doomed Earth. The obvious answer is that all achievement must be transplanted from Earth prior to a significant change in our Sun. If this appears impracticable, it should be recalled that billions of years ore available to achieve the proposed gool. In view of 'See "'life on Other Stors," SPACE Journol, spring issue, 1958, p. 16. space journal However, the probability of other solar systems is so high that we can be perpetuated. 6 ARAUCARITES safely assume their presence and let actual discovery and the means of reaching them await further technological developments. By the time escape from Earth is practicable, cosmologists will have chosen a star in our galaxy similar to our Sun and with a satellite planet much like Earth. The important differ­ ence will be that the new Sun will not be so far along in evolutionary development as the Sun we now have. Geologists will be able PLATEOSAURUS HORSETAILS �to assist in selecting the plant by extrapolat­ gists chose a planet only some four billion ing knowledge of the Earth. years old but otherwise identical to Earth. In It is interesting to speculate on the surface this event, it is possible that the new planet ,appearance of our proposed new home. If the cosmologists ore able to find o planet would have about the appearance of Earth virtually identical to Earth in so for as gross one billion B.C.). properties are concerned, adjustment of life the simplest forms of marine organisms in­ during late Pre-Cambrian time (approximately During this period only there to the overall environment should be habited Earth; land surfaces were barren of simple. plants Assume, however, that the cosmolo- and animals; and the atmosphere 7 space journal �1_ On the democracy, will survive scrutiny by a world other hand, if 1 0 planet about five billion population applying the scientific method to years old were chosen, all phases of life. probably was deficient in oxygen. it possibly would Maximum freedom of appear similar to present-day Earth, having, fidelity and self-expression will be demanded among other forms of life, intelligent beings. by a scientific world population, and de­ 1 Thus, if the cosmologists con determine ac• mocracy is the only form of government that curately the age of the planet to be colonized, satisfies these requirements. When, through it may be possible for geologists to predict education, superstition and fear are replaced approximately, historical by truth and courage, a new world religion geology, the environment to be expected by based on fact and closely allied with nature the colonists. will replace present religions. on the basis of For further illustration, assume that in the year 2500 A.D. all is ready for In addition to the harmony required to colonization of 1 0 carefully selected planet. make interplanetary colonization possible, there may be another good reason for its achievement. Whichever major theory of Assume also that by this time the age of Earth has been determined as 5.5 billion years, plus or minus several million years, and that the age of the Earthlike planet has been determined as 5.4 billion years, plus or minus several million years. Then, other things be­ ing similar, the colonists might encounter an environment like that on Earth around 100 million B.C., when reptiles ruled the land. Dinosaurs, flying reptiles, and other terrestrial and marine animals and plants might confront the colonists, who, through geologic deduc­ tion, would be prepared for such a spectacle. In addition to assisting in selection of plan­ origin of the Universe is accepted, there is no reason to believe that we are the most intelligent life in our galaxy, to say nothing of the Universe. (The existence of extra-Earth intelligence is considered to be about as prob­ able as the existence of other solar systems and only awaiting discovery.) On the one hand, life may hove been in existence for an infinity of time, or as long as there has been a Universe. On the other hand, life may be on the order of the age of Earth. Granting the first possibility, some universal make intelligence may be unbelievably greater than other important contributions to the conquest of Space. Ores from which Space vehicles our own. Granting the second possibility, en­ vironmental differences may have promoted will be made and some of the fuels which will far greater development of intellect on some propel them will be found and produced by planet other than Earth. employing geologic principles. advanced intellects plan and may even have carried out interplanetary colonizations for ets for colonization, geologists will Furthermore, firsthand geologic examination of any visited Space target will be most important in estab­ lishing suitability of these bodies to human purpose. Consequently, geologists will be among the first scientists landed on Space targets. This necessary endeavor should have a profound and beneficial effect on the human r·ace. The project is so huge in scope that Presumably, these the same reason that we must. As a planet, we will have to be acceptable at least to galactic society; or we may not be permitted to survive. In conclusion, it appears that we have ade­ quate resources and more than adequate time to make Space travel a certainty. The weak­ est rung in man's ladder to outer Space is the no single country will be able to carry it human element, whereby fanatics may re­ through; the physical and mental resources peatedly obliterate progress by plunging the of all the world will be required. This unified effort should produce nonviolent political and religious revolutions terminating in world wretchedness. Annihilation of the human race harmony. These revolutions on education, and they have It is difficult to see how any formal religions or political 8 space journal will be based already begun. of the existing plans, except world into war and physical and intellectual seems possible. Clearly, education is the first duty of all concerned-everyone on Earth. Although education cannot eliminate fanatics, it certainly can prohibit their rise to power in a world of enlightened people. �.... survival 1n space • By Siegfried J. Gerathewohl Siegfried J. Gerathewohl wo, born in Ebersboch, Saxony, Germany, in 1909. After ,tudying physiology, psychology, and education at the Institute of Technology, in Dresden, ond at the University of Batavia, in Munich, he received hi, doctorate at Dresden in 1936. He also holds o degree as o Diploma P,ycholo• gi,t from the University of Munich. As o Captain in the Germon Air Force on 1940, he become chief of the Psychological Te,ting Center at Homburg. He ho, also been chief of the Deportment of Industrial P,ychology for the Bavarian Motor Company in Munich. In 1946 he joined the Aero Medical Center in Heidelberg, Germany, and, in the next year, was transferred to the School of Aviation Medi­ cine at Randolph Air Force Bose in Texas. The author of two books and more thon 70 articles on military psychology, aviation psy­ chology, and aviation medicine, he is a member of the Notional Academy of Sciences, the Aeromedicol Association, the American Psycho• logical Association, the ScientiAc Society for Aeronautics, and the Germon Rocket Society. He is also on associate professor of experimental psychology at the United Stoles Air Force·, Air University. In 1958 he received the Arnold D. Tuttle Memorial Award for his re,eorch into the problems of weightles,neu. telecasts, and along Sunset Boulevard, but recently into big business. Since the exploita­ tion of this idea proved fairly profitable, the eyes of all sorts of adventurers were magically drawn toward the stars and the infinity of outer Space. While the lay public followed this develop­ ment with enthusiasm, the majority of scientists looked upon it with either awe or contempt. The rocketeers, of course, propagated the idea of Space travel from the start with a sense of mission which-as astronaut Frederick I. Ordway put it-"aroused a vaguely un­ comfortable recollection of some of the Bibli­ cal prophets." Ever since Lucian, the satirical Greek writer who lived about 1 800 years ago, let his Mooomen set out to vanquish the inhabitants of the Sun, the imagination of Earthlings has been inflamed again and again by the dream Now, that the technological disciplines have finally recognized their new­ born child, astronautics, as being legitim<Jte, the medical, social, and psychological sciences are moving to claim it slowly and somewhat reluctantly. of interplanetary travel. Space flight has be­ Never in his history of existence has man come one of the fascinating subjects under been faced with a more fateful decision. The discussion venture into Space is more revolutionary and today. It appeals to everyone regardless of age, sex, or profession. It is the hazardous than the invasion of land by the thrill of the ice-cream counter in the drugstore aquatic animal in the Paleozoic Era. For these as well as of scientific panel discussions at the creatures were merely migrating from one Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Publica­ terrestrial habitat to tions on this topic can be found everywhere million years for adaptation. But the Space another, having 100 from the comics to science fiction, from pulp invader is leaving Earth altogether; and he magazines to learned journals, from novels to seems to be in quite a hurry, too. In prepar­ research reports in the Pentagon. Although ing himself for this gamble, he must overcome authorities on this subject have written obit­ a variety of novel and difficult problems of uaries for one reason or another, Space flight body and soul engineering. As he usually does just refused to stay dead. Moreover, it made in case of serious trouble, he turns to the its way not only into radio broadcasts, TV doctor. 9 space journal �has higher intelligence and greater versatility are nor con it be expected to do so in the future. environment along on his trip. As a matter of Unfortunately, the human organism changed but little during its known existence; Breeding on entirely new crop of Space travel­ ers seems too lengthy and cumbersome in this time of ours. Hence, we must think of assets for his survival. He can take his own fact, rocket power, pressure breathing, 0xygen systems, temperature control, sealed cabins, meteor bumpers, power steering, antituml,ling more practical and effective means for fitting devices, ejection capsules, artificial gravita­ not constructed to expand into verticality, he periscopes, radio, radar and television, elec­ If man should wander unprepared into the -just to mention a few requisites of futuristic Homo sapiens to his expedition. Since he was must be redesigned for survival. tion, astro-navigation charts, telesc0pes and tronic computers, univacs, and skywatch men would suffocate within travel-already have been tailored to his de­ blood would boil in the vacuum. Mercilessly automation that he may even be bored to and the bombardment of cosmic rays and To be a little more serious, the success of a void of Space he seconds because of a lack of oxygen. His mands and will be brought to such a state of exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the Sun death on his venture into Space. meteorites, Space pilot is about his burned and riddled body 90 percent purely an would be torn to bits by pressure differentials engineering problem, although natural ability debris" into the darkness and silence of in­ rest. and would drift weightlessly as "Space finity. and training skill may well account for the Let's be more specific about this matter. As The question of protecting man in a Space was indicated before, we seriously believe volved in S p> ace travel. Its solution begins higher form of conventional flying, but some­ venture out. rocket craft cannot take off or land whenever environment, then, is the primary one in­ with the selection of the specimen who is to Many answers have been given, by more or less qualified men, to the question of what that Space travel per se is not just a somewhat thing profoundly different. and wherever he desires. The pilot of a He cannot get out of his ship in an emergency. More than in makes a Space pilot really successful; and any other type of piloting will he be told from gent, and sincere. But some of them just miss the air and guided automatically along a of the comic strips upon American civilization, nor will he be allowed to control his vehicle have been centered subconsciously on such input and feedback are mostly absent or most of the answers are well-meant, intelli­ the ground what to do. He will be fired into 0 the point. Because of the tremendous impact predetermined course. He is neither capable the thinking of some of the contributors must during certain phases of the trip. famous personalities as Buck Rogers, qualitatively different. Flash Gordon, and the Space Cadets. Granted that Control During conditions of sub-gravity and zero-gravity there is no fly­ picking the right man is one side of the story, ing by the seat of the pants. Actually, gliding And this training can be done in many ways. anonymous push-button affair and cruises out into open Space, the walls when he plunges back into the disturbing tur­ terrestrial atmosphere. _Only if his ship is his flying skills be required. then training him to perfection is the other. through Space is not flying at all. It 1s an The moment man leaves the air behind him pletely unfamiliar type of locomotion. Only and a com­ of his cabin must contain an approximation of bulence of Earth's atmosphere will some of equipped with all the necessities of life and is We are not even sure whether or not a protected against the hostile environment out­ good jet pilot will be a good Space pilot. side will man be able to survive. The many Things are too different out there. be reproduced artificially .w.ithin the Space­ Space flyer is his environment. If the engineers more sensitive, there is no reason to assume otherwise-the functions of Earth's atmospheric shield must ship. Although the human organism is much demanding, and vulnerable than that of many other living beings, his 10 space journal Thus, the main requirement for a successful succeed in constructing the hardware-and problem of Space travel is near its solution. �tors, the significance of which has never been actually established, is purely academic. And so are the statements about preliminary elimination percentages which say that "of every 1,000 persons who can meet the initial rigid educational, physical and age require­ ments for space training, only five will ever enter Space-just enough for one rocket­ ship crew." How can we know? To publish such data before even knowing what tasks will actually be required of the pilot seems to be putting the Space cart before the horse­ Dr. Gerothewohl in the F-94 croft used for experiments on weightlessness. Although there exist only a few hints about the actual working conditions of Space crews, some rather general conclusions about the job requirements can be drawn. Some pre­ liminary designs suggest that the actual Space craft will be much like the imaginative rocket ship. Admittedly, the quarters will be neither spacious nor luxurious, but working and living facilities are expected to be reasonably habitable and utilitarian. Instruments may be numerous and complex, but every effort will be made to take the load off the pilot. Once launched with a catapult-like acceleration which may increase his weight ninefold, the pilot will have to monitor the ship to a cer­ tain degree during the cruise, which will include periods of sub-gravity and complete weightlessness that may exert some strain even on previously conditioned crews. Descent and landing, after an extended glide, will be like that of a large jet aircraft or glider plane. In none of the many scientific and semi­ scientific treatises on Space travel has the task of the crew been specified in SOP (standing operating procedures) terms. This, of course, is a remarkable lapse. Perhaps the designers still do not know what it will be. It may be that they are still working on cybernetics and auto­ mation. It is not easy nowadays to make things simple. But only if we can formulate a realistic job description for the Space pilot, can we reason intelligently about the specific difficulties with which the future Space ship skipper will have to cope. And only then can we arrive at a set of physiological and psycho­ logical requirements. The selection of rocket pilots and Space crews by means of predic- power. Fortunately enough, there are some men who have already flown rocket planes. They are not actually Space flyers, but they have reached the border of Space, at least. They do not claim to be supermen, nor do they believe their problems to be unsurmountable. They have made this point clear in many a conversation, and some of it was brought to light in a panel discussion on "Sky Unlimited" a few years ago. Their main concern is techni­ cal. Only if provoked do they touch their body and soul problems. This is what test pilot Scott Crossfield thinks about selection: As far as selecting pilots during the war, for two years I was on carrier-type training in the Navy. I spent that whole two years trying to find men whom I could pick for my students. Everytime I was made out a liar.Who can tell who is going to be a good pilot, or the best pilot? And he underlined statement: General Flickinger's The process of selection is a natural one in which those individuals with the requisite flying schools, motivation and technical knowledge gravitate toward the work •..• That is probably the oldest method of selec­ tion we have for test pilots ••• . A good quality to look for in a research pilot is successful tactical experience. A man must know his airplane and be interested in what he is doing. And Major Arthur Murray says: ••.as was pointed out, pilots just gravi­ tate into these jobs . . • • We rely on a man's aggressiveness, rather than his in­ herent ability, physiological age and other factors ....We work with pilots such as you see here today. Thus it seems we do not have to worry about the selection of Space pilots today be­ cause there are enough candidates who are eager to apply whenever the need arises. Even if we wanted to, we cannot do very much about this problem because there are no tests I I space journal �available which would select the successful off Phenomenon," test pilot or Space cadet. The Air Force tests scribe this effect as "a feeling of being ore of no help either. There is no known ex­ isolated, detached, or separated physically ample that they ever succeeded in picking the from the Earth." (J. Aviat, Med.; vol. 28, best, or the most capable, or the outstanding man for a particular job. They come out with a usuable average, at best, but Space ships need more than statistical probabilities. 0n the other hand, there exists quite a reservoir of capable, experienced, and highly motivated combat, test, and research pilots. Take Scott Crossfield, who said recently on TV, that he would give his left arm if he could fly the X-15. Perhaps we start at the wrong end again. It seems more important to pick the right men to direct the program than to pick at our ever­ Clark ona Graybiel de­ pages 1 21-1 26, 19 57 .) They let test pilot Bill Bridgman describe his sensations during a flight at the borderline of Space while he ex­ perienced the break-off: Fifty-nine thousond, sixty thousond, reel­ ing off sixty-one thousand. I hove left the world. There is only the ship to identify myself with. Her vibrations are my own, I feel them os intensely as those of my body. Here is a kind of unreality mixed with reality that I cannot explain to myself. I have an awareness that I have never ex­ perienced before, but it does not seem to project beyond this moment . . . . This is interesting; but, although this effect eager pilots. Being finally afloat in Space, the crew may was experienced by about 35 percent of the face grove psychological adjustments. Some jet pilots interrogated, it was not considered doctors think that "by for the greatest prob­ generally to have a signifkont influence on lem involves the implications of a seemingly their ability to operate a plane. Captain Ivan complete break from the Earth and the protec­ Kincheloe, who held the altitude record, did tive societal matrix in a small, isolated, closely not think much of it either. And Lt. Col. David confined container with a few companions. Simons, who rode in a small gondola longer little is known today about the effect of than any other person, was scored only when confinement and social isolation on individual he struck an electrical storm. Nobody will and group behavior, particularly under the deny that the experience of being high up hazardous of in a small capsule may produce uncomfort­ flight." In a recent publication on the "Break- able feelings, but it does not make much and threatening conditions Mojor H. D. Stollings, Dr. H. Strughold, and Dr. Gerothewoh/ discussing experiments in front of the Air Force T-33 used for eorly experiments on weightlessness. A �difference whether one is l 00,000 feet or miles from the ground, if the chance of sur­ vival is about the same. The Space flyers will be in continuous contact with Earth. They con listen to the radio, coll whenever they feel like it, hove radar pictures and eventually televi­ ✓ .�\ _;) sion for their orientation and entertainment. r ,,.,�Jc Hundreds of small boats, submarines, light houses, observatories, and outposts // } ------· ✓• ) ore '-/ manned and maintained under extreme con­ ditions of isolation and danger; but their un­ " selected inhabitants do not crock. It seems that Columbus was more detached and des­ perate in his trip across the ocean than the Moon traveler will be five hundred years later. Moreover, the point is not that people get scared, but that they snap out of it. Most men con adjust to a certain degree of danger, and only a few crack up; but again we are facing a dilemma because there is no test that would predict them with certainty. Says Scott Crossfield: If o test pilot hos real pyschologicol prob­ lems he would never be in this business. I hove never been able to get anyone to tell me what they are. You're darned scored.Un­ fortunately, perhaps, it seems to be the characteristic of most aggressive pilots that they more or less sustain this apprehension. To my knowledge, in the post, none of the flight test pilots hos hod o physical checkup prior to o mission, unless there hod been some reported difficulty. All pilots ore re­ quired by military regulations to obtain physical examinations. And Crossfield is completely normal. So are the others who have seen blood, sweat, f1ak, and disaster. However it seems that the people on the ground are more inclined to worry than the men in the air. How did Lindbergh feel when he mode his way over the northern seas? Of course, we can spend a million dollars on soul searching, but there seems to be some Dr. Gerothewohl's ideal space man, having four arms and hands /two hands developed into tools) lo do the many things necessary for survival in Space, would include antennae instead of ears, telescopic eyes, direct 01cygen supply from built-in tonk, rocket fuel intake, and legs which act os flns during flight. task, however, may be modern man's real crossroads of decision. It seems unlikely that we will hove any real test other than letting him try it. It is a test of courage, not of skills. This thought is like that of Tony LeVier who said about the requirements of flying the F-1 04: This bird is easy to handle and can be flown by a child. But you must be condi­ tioned to it. I hove looked at the faces of o bunch of test pilots when they saw the bird for the first time. Some just liked it. Some looked pleased. But some looked terrified. They were frightened. I could have picked the ones who can fly it just by looking at their expression. To condition these men seems to me the most important thing of all ... No better comment can be mode than this: other worthwhile projects to sink the money We have the men and they ore eager to go. in. The soul is not the weakest link in Space They will be thoroughly conditioned through Oight. tlieir experiences of test and research flight. What is most impressive of all these pre­ They ore ahead of the engineers and the liminaries is neither the human factor nor fiction writers. They do not take these stories interplanetary Space, but the powerplant that seriously about the "psychotic Russian Space will make the ship akin to a celestial body. girls," who ore said already to hove on edge Seeing a rocket on the test stand is a unique on them; and they ore not alarmed about experience; it is terrific and horrifying. To manning the Space croft "with male and imagine that a man will ultimately walk over female pairs of unmarried psychotic midgets.'· to such a three-stage, man-mode volcano, (Time, September 16, 1957.) They know that board it through on elevator, calmly check they are the crop to choose from, and that his instruments a hundred feet atop the deadly one day they will toke off. But this will not furnace, and launch it with a roar, has still toke place before they hove at least a 99 something of the science fiction about it. This percent chance of returning safely to Earth. 13 space journal �reality, relativity and common sense BY JAMES P. GARDNER James Patrick Gardner was barn in Win• nipeg, Manitoba, Canada, and grew up in Granite City, 1 llinois. He was educated at Parks College of Aeronautical Technology of St. Louis University and at the University of Alo• bomo. His field was aeronautical engineering. Since leaving college, he has been employed by the Missile Design Section, Future Projects De­ sign Branch of the Structures and Mechanics laboratory at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. in the ultimate sense. With these things in mind we are ready to re-examine our ideas of space, time and motion. We think of everything that moves as hav­ Common sense is that layer of preju­ dices laid down in the mind prior to the age of eighteen. -Albert Einstein ing some sort of conveyor. A train moves along a track with some velocity relative to the track. A ship moves through the water with some velocity relative to the water. Sound waves travel through the air with some velocity relative to the air. say something has a velocity, No individual was more aware of the in­ we usually importance of herent difficulties associated with the accept­ the relative velocity concept may be illus­ ance of a new idea than was the creator of trated by the following example. the theory of relativity. The more basic the idea, the greater the difficulty. 14 mean relative velocity. The When we Probably the Suppose we have two rifles, each of which fires a bullet with a muzzle velocity of 1,000 foremost cause of this difficulty is the tendency feet per second. to confuse reality with human experience. In we will assume that sound waves travel at early childhood we begin to form positive ideas in relation to space, time and motion. exactly 1,000 feet per second. The two rifles are mounted on a stationary bench and are Anything that challenges these fixed notions equipped with a mechanism which will allow To simplify the experiment is considered a violation of common sense us to fire them simultaneously, and a metal and therefore unreal. drum is placed 4,000 feet down range to Fortunately there is a way out of the dilem­ serve as a target. When the guns are fired the ma if one is willing to take the necessary bullets will travel down range, strike the drum, steps. and the impact sound will travel back to the The first step is the recognition of man's place in the world as a casual observer starting point. with rather limited equipment. The second step is the acceptance of the fact that man impacts at exactly the same time, or eight seconds after we fire, since the time required does not have the capacity to conceive reality for the bullets to travel to the target will be space journal In this case we will hear both �exactly equal to the time required for the sound to travel back lo the starting point. Now let us repeat the experiment in a Now let us try another similar experiment. This time we will replace the rifle on the car with a horn. We will let the car travel in the slightly different manner. We will mount one some direction and with the some speeal as rifle exactly as before, but we will mount the before, and we will assume that the sound other on an from the horn will bounce bock from the automobile which is moving toward the target with o velocity of 115 feet target like on echo. As before, the instant the per second. Both rifles ore fired the instant car posses the stationary bench the horn is the car posses the stationary bench and again sounded and the bullet is fired. In contrast to we wait for the impact sound waves to return. the previous experiment both sounds will re­ This time the sound waves will return approxi­ turn to the starting point simultaneously. The mately Although both bul­ reason for the different result is as follows: the lets ½ left second apart. muzzle A bullet moves independently of any medium velocity, they each hod a different velocity the rifles with with whatever velocity it is given unless it is relative to the ground. The bullet fired from acted upon by some external force. A sound the moving rifle hod a higher relative velocity wove is dependent upon some medium of (muzzle velocity transportation. + same car velocity) therefore it must arrive at the target first. is propagated by the air which may be con- r::::.r.�==:Jl-(-(-(-(-(- ==- �-;::::::;- In this case the sound wove � FEEJ':> ( (-(-(-<-(-(-(- - (- (-(- (- (-(-( - (-(- (-( -(-(- ( _\-<,-:..'c-=.! (-::::..!;=.!.:::.,! 17'/i i"::.J.,..§ SECOND �-:==,- -(-(-(-( -(-(-(-<-,-,_ <-r-, ..:- 1 _,_ '--·--·-· ..,...eC -·· -, , ' 1 ( ( ((-((-(-(-(-(-(: (--:) (� � � J ------- 41 ➔ I 15 FEET PER SECOND � c_1):.--'1;.- i("" e "--- --�"'fill -o':'� ---. � ,1x-, .. , .. ----- ·- ... � B H-(-(-(-(-H-c-r-c-(-(-<-c-,_r l l-H Hl. �-(��= ( (-(( C --,--, ___ ,_'= (-l-,-l- ,-·-� � =,; =1;�3Ml -····-. ;// .l--�iC- 1!> -=(-) • _ ___., ("' -�&Y:-�-:::;;-;�----tf .... _,. ...... --- .,,,If&- C .. FIGURE I 15 space journal �sidered at rest relative to the earth. So we find that the sound wave moves with a con­ stant velocity relative to the air and is inde­ pendent of the velocity of the source. This is an important point which will be referred to later. We are now ready to perform an hypo­ thetical experiment which will be helpful in explaining the Michdson experiment which opened the door to the theory of relativity. The experiment is shown in Fig. 1, and pro­ ceeds as follows. Points A and B are located on a river 100 mi•les apart. We will assume that the river is flowing from A to velocity of 10 miles per hour. Our boat has a speed in still The basic equation of motion is: =V or distance time= -- velocity On the downstream trip our velocity relative to the shore will be equal to the sum of the 16 space journal V(<lown�tr('l\111) therefore: = 20 + 10 = 30 mph 100 tcA to Bl = 30= 3.33 hr On the upstream trip our velocity relative to the shore will be equal to the difference between the velocity of the boat in still water and the velocity of the current. = 20 - 10 = 10 mph Therefore: tcs = 100 = 10 V(upstr('n111) to A) 100 =-= 10 10 We wish to water of 20 miles per hour. t velocity of the current. B with a travel by boat from A to B and back to A, and would like to calculate the time required for the trip. velocity of the· boat in still water and the hrs. hrs. The total time for the trip is: 10 + 3.33 = 13.33 hrs. Now let us stop the current and repeat the experiment. V(downstrcnm or upstrl'am) Total time = 20 mph = -20- = l O 200 hr.s. We have a time difference of 3.33 hrs. �This time difference will vary proportionally propagating through empty space, so they to a factor involving the ratio of the current decided that space must be filled with some and boat velocities. mysterious substance. By the use of some The mysterious sub­ simple algebra we can derive the equation stance was called ether and was endowed for the time shift and time shift factor. with some unique characteristics. It could propagate a wave, but it could offer no re­ sistance to motion. The next step in the ether hypothesis was obvious. If space is filled with this ether which propagates lightwaves, and it is at rest, then it should be a simple matter to find our (the Earth's) velocity through this medium. This is what Michelson set out to do. Since light must move through the ether much as sound moves through the air, we know from our experiment with the rifle and the horn that the wave velocity is independent of the velocity of the source. We also know from the boat experiment that velocities meas­ ured in opposite directions through a moving medium will result in a time shift. With these assumptions Michelson set out to measure the Earth's velocity through the ether. His ap­ paratus is shown in Fig. 2, and operates as follows. Two arms of equal length are mounted perpendicular to each other on a table which may be rotated about a vertical axis. A light source is placed at S, a half mirror at the axis A, and an optical instrument is mounted at the observation point 0. A mirror is placed at the end of each arm at 8 and C. The optical instrument at O is called It is clearly seen that a time shift is intro­ an interferometer which is an instrument which performed can be used to measure the slightest shift in which involves motion in opposite directions the fringe pattern resulting from two interfer­ through a medium which is in motion. With ing light beams. For instance, if a light beam this in mind we are ready to review the fa­ is split into two beams, allowed to travel a mous Michelson experiment. given distance, and then re-united, an inter­ duced when an experiment is In the last half of the 19th Century there was much speculation in regard to the method of propagation of electro-magnetic waves, or more specifically light waves. As was men­ tioned before, we think of everything that moves as having some sort of conveyor and ference pattern will be observed. If the ve­ locity and therefore the travel time of one of the beams is slightly altered, a different interference pattern will be observed. This change is referred to as a shift in the inter­ ference fringes. it is reasonably assumed that light was no ex­ In the Michelson experiment, if we con­ It can be easily proved sider the Earth at rest and the ether flowing by experiment that light does not use air as by, we have a situation similar to that in the a conveying medium. If air is not the con­ boat experiment. We are substituting a light veyor, what is? This is essentially the problem which confronted the 19th Century physicists. river. The light beam starts at S and proceeds They found it difficult to imagine light waves to A where it is split into two beams, one of ception to the rule. beam for the boat and a flowing ether for the 17 space journal �6- MIRROR C 1 - !:. - MIRROR A .,. J MIRROR B LIGHT SOURCE S NOTE: HALF SILVERED MIRROR (A) SPLITS LIGHT BEAM INTO TWO BEAMS; ONE (SHOWN BY BLACK LINE) PASSES THROUGH AND OTHER (SHOWN INTERFEROMETER o BY RED LINE} IS REFLECTED. FIGURE 3 which passes through A and proceeds to B, upon existing fundamental concepts which and the other is deflected 90 degrees and proceeds to C. The two beams are reflected were the very foundation of modern physics. Many leading physicists of that day took up at B and C, re-united at A, and proceed to 0 the challenge and attempted to explain the re­ where they enter the interferometer. If the sults of the experiment by slightly modifying entire apparatus is rotated 90 degrees so that or extending present views, but this path the light beam from A to B is first moving usually led to further complications and con­ parallel to the motion of the ether and then tradictions. Of these attempts probably the perpendicular to the motion of the ether, we most brilliant was made by H. A. Lorentz in would expect to find a time shift as we found the field of electro-magnetics. in the boat experiment. In this case motion that the negative result of the interference perpendicular to the ether stream is compara­ experiment could be explained by applying He showed ble to motion with no current in the boat ex­ a theory previously advanced by Fitzgera Id periment. Michelson performed his experiment with which stated that the physical dimensions of a body are altered if the body is in motion. extreme accuracy, and several variations were This change in dimension is known as Fitz­ introduced to eliminate the possibility of error gerald contraction, and is described in the due to external influence. To his amazement, following manner. If a body is in motion its in each case no appreciable shift in the in­ length measured along the line of motion terference fringes was observed, and no time will be decreased by an amount proportional shift could be recorded. to the ratio of the velocity of the body and The results of this experiment had a greater effect on physical science than perhaps any the velocity of light. As the velocity of the body approaches the velocity of light it will in history, for they cast a shadow of doubt gradually become shorter until at the velocity 18 space journal �of light its length will become zero. If this theory is applied to the Michelson experi­ ment, we see that the arm of the apparatus which is parallel to the Earth's motion will be shorter. When the apparatus is rotated 90 degrees, the other arm will be shorter. The equations of Lorentz show that this change of length due to velocity is the right amount to cancel out the effect of the time shift and cause the observed negative result. Lorentz believed this shrinking to be a physical reality resulting from magnetic field interactions within the atomic structure of the material. He compared this effect to that which can be observed in certain electrical phenomena in­ volving charged bodies moving in electric fields. The electro-magnetic theory necessitated the introduction of new hypothesis and heavy restrictions, and therefore could not be fully accepted as an explanation of the experi­ mental results. One other possible explanation was brought out. This was the theory that the ether moved with the Earth thereby eliminating the ether stream. This possibility was disproved by experiment. As one attempt after another failed, the scientific world wondered what to do with these experimental results which seemed to violate every rule of science and common sense ever laid down by man. The answer came in a short paper written by a 26-year-old physicist, Albert Einstein, who was then employed as a patent clerk in Switzerland. In his paper entitled "The Prin­ ciple of Relativity", Einstein introduced a whole new concept of the physical world. He showed that the difficulties encountered in explaining the results . of the Michelson ex­ periment were due to false concepts in regard to space and time. He showed that the con­ cept of space and time as individual and absolute entities was completely meaningless. He interpreted the results of the Michelson experiment as indisputable proof of the fol­ lowing statement which is the basis of the theory of relativity. "The velocity of light in vacuo is the same in all reference systems moving uniformly, relative to each other." This sounds like a harmless statement at first, but let us examine it closely with the aid of an example to see what it implies. Suppose we have two rocket ships A and B which move at very high velocities. We will assume that A moves with ¼ the velocity of light, and that B moves with ½ the velocity of light. The velocity of light is approximately l 86,000 miles per second. We will use the Solar System as our reference System, and all velocities are relative to this System. We will let A and B travel in parallel directions and assume that they are together (passing each other) at our starting line. At the instant A and B cross the starting line, a light is flashed which sends light waves in all directions. Each rocket ship is equipped with a stop clock which is started the instant the starting line is crossed. We will introduce a third observer C who is also equipped with a stop clock. The third observer will start his clock the in­ stant the rocket ships cross the starting line, but will remain at the starting line as a sta­ tionary observer. We will ask C to calculate his distance from the light wave front after his clock indicates a passing of five seconds. He knows the velocity of light is constant and is equal to 186,000 miles per second relative to any reference system, so he simply multi­ plies l 86,000 by five and reports that the wave front is 930,000 miles distant. We will ask A to perform the same calculation. He is also familiar with the hypothesis of rela­ tivity and therefore knows that the velocity of light is constant relative to his system, so he performs the same calculation as C did and reports that he is 930,000 miles from the light wave front. Finally B is asked to report his distance from the wave front at five sec­ onds and on the basis of the hypothesis of relativity he arrives at the same answer as did C and A. Now we must ask how three different ob­ servers each with a different velocity and each starting from the same point at the same time can be the same distance from a point (the light wave front) the same number of seconds later? Apparently the wave front is in three different places at the same time. This certainly is a violation of common sense! 19 space journal ��In search of an explanation, we are con­ meaning. It is only the combination of the two, fronted with a choice. We either must accept or the defined point at the defined time which this result and look deeper for the cause, or can really describe an event. Because of this we can forget the hypothesis of relativity and interlocking of space and time, comparisons go back to the old method of adding and of length, distance, and velocity cannot be subtracting velocities. The Michelson experi­ made between systems which are moving ment has shown the disastrous results of the relative to each other unless the lows of old method, so we will take the first choice. transformation, which were first derived by We must accept the fact that the wave front Lorentz, are applied. These laws enable us 1s where the observers say it is since their to calculate the length of a body which is calculations are based on the hypothesis of relativity, but we cannot accept the possibility in motion relative to a given reference system. of the wave front occupying three different positions at the same time. The answer to the puzzle lies in our concept of time which are stated as follows: we have considered absolute, or the same, for all observers regardless of their state of motion. We are actually forced to give up the concept of absolute time and accept the fact that it is impossible to compare time measurements directly between systems which are moving relative to each other. In our rocket ship experiment we can consider the time measured by the stationary observer C as our basic time for comparison. I do not wish to give the impression that there is anything special or absolute about the time measured by C. We only use this time as a basis for comparison because we considered C to be at rest in our reference system. Since A is moving with some velocity rela­ tive to C, we must assume that his clock runs somewhat slower than the clock at C. Since B is moving at a higher velocity than A rela­ tive to C, his clock must run slower than A's clock. So we hove three observers performing on experiment based on time, and each ob­ server hos a clock which is running at a dif­ ferent rate. No wonder our results were ridiculous! Actually the wove front was much closer to A and B than it was to C when C's clock showed a passage of five seconds since they were traveling at high velocities in the direc­ tion of the light wave. The clocks carried by A and B were running slower, so when they finally recorded a passage of 5 seconds the wave front was the some distance from them as it hod been from C. In the theory of relativity, time by itself has no meaning, and space by itself hos no These laws ore in the form of equations, and - . t, Where: Lo=Length of a body at rest relative to a system. L'=Length of a body in motion relative to C3 system. t'=Time lapse of a clock in motion relative to a system. to=Time lapse of a dock at rest relative to a system. v =Velocity of a body or clock relative to a system. c =Velocity of light in any system. These laws which ore based on the con­ stant velocity of light as given in the hypo­ thesis of relativity completely explain the results of the Michelson experiment. If these same equations are applied in the boat ex­ periment, we see that the change of length and time will exactly compensate the effect of the moving current. As stated before, in this case the boot represents the light beam, and the current represents the relative ve­ locity. If the contraction and time change equations ore properly combined they result in the time shift factor which was derived in the boat experiment. At first the theory of relativity strikes most of us as, at best, on interesting philosophical diversion, but if we seriously ponder the sub­ ject we become aware of the significance of it's implications. In certain areas these impli­ cations seem to border on the supernatural. A good example of this is the slowing down 21 space journal �of time. Time, which is usually taken quite is illustrated by the classic example of the for granted, is actually somewhat of en ab­ Space traveler who leaves the Earth, flies straction in itself. When we think of time we about in Space for a few weeks with a velocity usually think of a clock which is a periodic near that of light, and then returns to Earth mechanical device which is calibrated to the to discover that several hundred years hove rotation of our planet. If the rotational speed elapsed. During his voyage his clock was of our planet should suddenly increase or almost stopped due to his high velocity rela­ decrease, we would be forced to throw away tive to the Earth. He was of course completely OIi of our clocks. unaware of this slowing down of time since So we see from the preceding discussion that time is meaningless unless it is associated all of his physical and mental processes were slowed down in the same manner. or interlocked with physical events. The theory Examination of the transformation equa­ of relativity shows that the velocity of light is tions shows clearly that relativistic effects do the upper limit or maximum with not come into play unless velocities near that which any physical body can move since to of light are attained. We do not experience velocity exceed this velocity we would find ourselves such velocities in everyday life, but as man dealing with negative time or clocks running moved into Space such velocities must be ob­ backwards. tained if we wish to travel to another solar An interesting result of this time dilatation system within an individual's life span. "Doggone it! Are they THAT hard up for Space Cadets?'" 22 space journal �I EDITOR'S NOTE: Recent investigations in kinetic energy; or, in formula LE=Eri+E k. astronautics have resulted in a new concept But this is true only in a state of equilibrium; which may help relate the macrocosm to the for example, a satellite in orbit around Earth microcosm, with the tie between them being or one of its sister planets, the swinging time. pendulum of a clock, etc. But if we consider Briefly the idea is this: in basic physics we the total energy required to bring a mass into learn that the total energy of a mass is equal a new state of equilibrium, then this formula to the sum of its potential energy and its no longer holds true-according to the new concept of "displacement energy" or LiE. To illustrate, let us analyze the football quarterback who makes a "jump" pass. Be­ fore he leaps into the air, his body possesses potential energy. As he springs into the air, two things happen: time elapses and his potential energy is converted to kinetic ener­ gy. However, during the time he is moving upward, energy must also be expended to lift his energy needed to throw the ball. This, then, is the "displacement energy," and it must be accounted for in any computation of the total energy needed for such a pass. Thus the formula must now become: �E=E p +Ei. + LiE. The same holds true for launching a satellite into orbit around Earth, lunar probes, and interplanetary Space flights. Within the microcosm the concept of E may also have far reaching consequences. It may even impinge upon a unified concept of universal occurrences. In this respect, E seems comparable to Maxwell's "displace­ ment current," which explains, among other things, the action of a capacitor (condenser) in an electric circuit. Indeed, there is a striking similarity between the two concepts in that both involve the consideration of time as the essential determinant. The discovery and formulation of this im­ portant concept was made by Helmut Hoepp­ ner, formerly of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and now Senior Scientist for As­ tronautics at the Chrysler Corporation, and his co-worker at ABMA B. Spencer Isbell, also editor of SPACE Journal. Both Hoeppner and Isbell credit Professor Hermann Oberth with assistance and encouragement during their work on L'iE. -Mitchell R. Sharpe 23 space journal �design criteria for buildings on the moon By John S. Rinehart John 5. Rinehart, o physicist, received his Bachelor of Science degree from Northeast Mis­ souri State Teachers College in 1934, his Moster of Science degree from California Institute of Technology in 1937, and his doctorate from the State University of Iowa in 1940. He hos taught at Kansas Stole College, Wayne University, and Harvard University. A former associate director of the Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory, he has also worked for the Naval Ordnance Test Station ond the former New Mexico Experimental Range. He is presently a professor of mining engineering al the Colorado School of Mines and director of the Mining Research Laboratory. A member of Sigma Xi, the American Physical Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, he is the author of War Weapons for Air Warfare and The Behavior of Metals Under Impulsive loads. for his serv­ ices during World War 11, he was awarded o Presidential Certificate of Merit. During this revolution it turns exactly once on its own axis so that it always presents the same side to Earth (but the Sun illuminates all points on the Moon at some time during this revolu­ tion.) The Moon wobbles a bit so that actually we see about ¼ 59 percent of its surface. Its diameter is 2160 miles, approximately that of Earth, but its mass is only 1 /81 that of Earth; thus its density (pounds per cubic feet) is only 0.61 times that of Earth or about 280 pounds per cubic foot. From this we derive, from Newton's universal law of gravi­ tation, a most significant and important result, namely, that the gravitational attraction at the Man will, within the foreseeable future, con­ Moon's surface is only 0.165 (approximately struct permanent buildings on the Moon to serve as living quarters for Moon explorers, 1 /6) that on the surface of Earth. Thus on the surface of the Moon every object will weigh laboratories for astrophysical and astrochemi­ only 1/6 as much as on the surface of Earth. cal research, maintenance shops for the ve­ hicles of the Space traveler, stations for The mass of each object is, however, inde­ communication networks, and numerous other tinually keep the distinction between mass and structures. weight clearly in mind. built? 24 How are these buildings to be pendent of its location. In design one must con­ What are the basic design criteria? The environment of a building on the Moon How do they differ from those applicable to Earth-situated buildings? What special facil­ The Moon has no observable atmosphere. differs markedly from its environment on Earth. ities must be provided that are not needed on There is no haze, no clouds, no winds, no rain Earth? What are the environmental differences and hazards? What determines the material or snowstorms. The building is either bathed in intense sunshine or looks upon stark, black, we use? What problems must the architect and cold Space. It will be continuously plagued the construction engineer face? How are the by a great gnat-like rain of interplanetary materials to be transported? dust. The Moon is a large, essentially spherical body which moves in a slightly elliptical orbit had any, because of its small size and, hence, around Earth in accordance with well-estab­ low gravitational pull. The velocity of escape The Moon has lost its atmosphere, if it ever lished physical and astronomical laws: New­ from the Moon is quite low, 1 .5 miles per ton's laws of motion; Newton's universal second, as contrasted with 6.9 miles per gravitation law; and Kepler's laws. Its mean distance from Earth is 238,857 miles, and it second for that of Earth. The gravitational at­ takes 27.3 days to revolve once about Earth. hold to it the nitrogen and oxygen molecules space journal traction of Earth is strong enough to grip and �This is not the They probably do not present a health hazard case on the Moon. The thermal velocities of but they may be sufficiently abundant to dis­ the gas molecules are sufficiently high that if color glass or plastic after long exposure. that form our atmosphere. gas molecules were ever present, they would It is also not possible to define accurately long since have wandered off into Space. A enough the nature and distribution of meteoric few molecules of heavy gases such as carbon matter to estimate it as a potential hazard dioxide, krypton, and xenon may have re­ to lunar structures. Extraterrestrial material mained behind or may be seeping out from exists in three forms: the most abundant by far the Moon's interior but these are not signifi­ is interplanetary dust, the dust which forms Thus the atmospheric pressure is zero, the zodiacal light, a faint band of light seen cant. and any building constructed there must be extending from the Sun at the end of twilight; internally pressurized with an atmosphere ,n the next is debris from comets, which, when which human beings can survive. they streak through our atmosphere produce The Moon's surface, unshielded by an ab­ intensely luminous trails, called meteors, sorbing atmosphere, con feel the full force of and, lastly, the meteorites, probably great the Sun's rays and become extremely hot on masses of stone and iron and fragments of one side while the other side will quickly hove planets which once resided between Mars and radiated its heat into Space and become ex­ Jupiter in our solar system. The interplanetary Day and night on the Moon dust ranges in size from 1 to 300 microns ceedingly cold. ore each about two weeks long. in diameter; meteors are fragile, porous bodies The temperatures on the surface of the of low-gross density; and meteorites are solid The velocity with Moon have been carefully measured, using a chunks of iron and stone. telescope equipped with a vacuum thermo­ which any of these might strike the Moon couple. On one occasion this was done during ranges from 1.5 miles per second to about an eclipse and it was found that the surface 44 miles per second. There will be no atmos­ of the Moon cools very quickly, reaching a low phere to check its velocity as is the case with temperature in 20 or 30 minutes after the Sun Earth, stops shining. The temperature at lunar mid­ the meteors are rendered impotent. day is 214 ° F; at sunset-32 ° ° F; and at where the interplanetary dust and The fall of a meteorite is a relatively rar"' F. It is possible to guess the event: about five per day reach Earth. Inter­ sort of temperature environment, maximum planetary dust is by far more abundant in of changes in temperature, any structure placed Space with the abundance of this dust in the vicinity of the Moon being about 5 x 10-21 on the Moon will be subjected to. Any structure grams per cubic centimeter. The Moon sweeps placed there must be able to withstand these up this material at the rate of 110 tons in extreme temperatures and especially the tre­ a 24-hour period. midnight -243 and m1n1mum temperatures and rates mendous temperature gradients. Thus the chance of a large building being The ultraviolet radiation, normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, will be sufficiently in­ tense to render panes of glass or plastic use­ less as windows. Thus, shutters for such windows must be provided. struck by a meteorite or a meteor is negligible, one hit in perhaps several thousand years. lnterplanentary dust is the real hazard, and we do not know how great it is. The particles ore small; and even though of great velocity, The Moon is continually bombarded by they could be easily warded off with an um­ particulate matter: cosmic rays, charged par­ brella-like shield. The best estimate is that ticles, and meteoric particles. Not much is about three or four particles, with diameters known about the rote of influx of cosmic rays ranging from 0.0002 to 0.0004 inches, would Ill strike each square yard of exposed surface indicate that they are considerably more abundant in space than we have thought. per day. A meteoric shield must be a part of any structure built on the Moon. although recent records from Explorer 25 space journal �- Scale model of a Moon building designed and built by the Wonder Building Corporation of America, as a permanent structure for our Moon explorers. The plastic bubble-type ob servolory in the foreground is protected from ultraviolet radi­ ation by sliding metal doors. The overhead structure is a meteorite shield to protect the building proper. The dome in the center of the barrier is a traffic control tower. The proposed building would be 340 feet long, 160 feet wide, and 65 feel high. From a practical viewpoint, the exact nature of the surface of the Moon is our greatest unknown. On a grand scale we know that the Moon's surface is covered with large and deep craters, huge mountain ranges, and vast flat areas. But we can not look at the Moon in the intimate detail needed to provide us with realistic design data for construction. Resolu­ tion with our best telescopes is about one mile. Opinion is now divided as to the nature of the Moon's landscape. At an Air Force sym­ posium on this subject in April 1958, three eminent astronomers summarized their variant ideas: 1. The maria (large dark flat areas) are almost certainly covered with lava and will make flrm landing spots for Earth's space­ ships. 2. The rock has turned slowly to dust by bombardment of rays and particles from the Sun and Space. The dust, kept stirred up by the same agents that formed it, has flowed like a slow liquid into the Moon's low places so the 26 space journal maria are not filled with lava, but with dust perhaps several miles deep. Dust near the surface may be as fluffy as baby powder. Unwary ships might disappear in dry quick­ sand. 3. Although the Moon may have plenty of dust, its surface has been solidified. There may be a thin layer like dust on a grand piano, but the underlying material, cemented to­ gether (not stirred up) by bombardment from Space, is probably "crunchy" and strong enough to support air alighting spaceships. With this lack of knowledge and great divergence of opinion, we can only design for the worst condition: a sea of dust upon which we must float our structures. Without defining the specific function of the building we know that it must provide for the following: 1. Living quarters, including rooms for sleeping, cooking, eating and recrea­ tion. 2. Physics, chemistry, and biological laboratories. �become important in design of the heating, 3. A control tower for communication, studies, power, water, sewage, and ventilating system. tions, traffic control, etc. cause man will be able to lift himself with l /6 meteorological servations, earth obobservaastronomical Ramps and stairs can be much steeper be­ 4. Air conditioning, heating, power and the effort required on Earth. A crane designed refrigeration plants, oxygen produc­ for a one ton load on Earth can be lift at least tion units, extreme-temperature regu­ six tons on the Moon. We must, on the other lating devices, water supply and sew­ hand, be careful with our elevators for here age disposal plants. we are accelerating and decelarating masses. 5. A machine shop and equipment main­ No consideration need be given wind or tenance area. Further, we know that snow loads since they will not exist. Our major the structure must be built as on in­ stresses now come from the artificial atmos­ tegral floatable unit. phere contained within the hermetically sealed We assume the following: (1) that the loca­ tion of the building on the Moon will be fixed; (2) that the building will be constructed from materials brought from Earth; (3) that the building will provide the functions listed above; building. Normal atmospheric pressure, 14.7 pounds per square inch, is a realistic figure to use for design purposes; 1 0 pounds per square inch would be sufficient. The problem is not unlike that enco-untered by the designers of high-flying aircraft except perhaps in one and (4) that it will be a permanent-type build­ respect which could be significant. On the ing in the sense that it will be occupied on a Moon we can play the gravitational forces continuing basis for several years. against the air pressure forces, achieving some A Moon building presents its own peculiar problems, and first is the matter of gravity. The force of gravity on the Moon is approxi­ mately l 6 that of Earth. This means that the deflection of a cantilever beam or any other load-supporting beam or column will be only l /6 as great as it would be on Earth. Changes in gravity will not affect the strength proper­ ties of the materials. For design purposes we can, in static situations only, replace the gravity of 32 feet per second which repeatedly appears in our strength of materials formulas by 116 its value, say five feet per second. A whole new field of design is opened up. It is as if we hod an exceedingly high-strength, lightweight construction material. We must, however, be wary of any dyomic situation. We do not change the mass of our material by transporting it to the Moon. It would be just as difficult to accelerate a car kind of equilibrium which may gain us an ad­ vantage. This is a matter that needs look­ ing into. Broad expanses of curved structures can be used, but we must tie the whole to­ gether with rods or similar means so that it does not explode. Rapid, intense heating and sudden, severe cooling present difficult but certainly solvable design problems. The parts of the structure be­ coming shaded will immediately become very cold, while those in the Sun will remain heated to a high temperature. During the lunar day, when the Sun is upon the structure, devices must be provided to regulate the influx and efflux of heat. These should be tied together to the heating and ventilating systems. But we must also be prepared to be without our principal energy source, the Sun, for two weeks at a time. This means providing energy storage facilities of no mean proportion. on the Moon as it is on Earth. Thus, designs The potential hazard from cosmic rays, involving vibratory or rotary motion must con­ while still one of the big unknowns, is proba­ form to the normal Earth pattern. An electric bly not great enough to warrant modifying generator designed for Moon use would not building practices. Eventually the living quar­ appear substantially different from an earthly ters may be lined with thin sheets of lead. one. The bombardment by meteoric matter is Reduction in gravity will influence the con­ serious but can be dealt with. The best ap­ vective flow of air and the rate of flow of proach is to use the scheme long in use by liquids downhill. These changes are likely to tent dwellers to protect themselves from the 27 space journal �fury of rainstorms; o canvas canopy covering, need not be built to withstand the tumultuous placed above and separated some distance forces exerted by a watery ocean. The dust on from the roof of the lent, which dulls the force the Moon is as calm as o mild pond. of the impact of the raindrops and diverts the According to Archimedes' principle o body material away from the roof of the tent. On the immersed in o fluid is woter buoyed up by a Moon, the conopy must be of o metal, with a force equol to the weight of the fluid it dis­ thickness sufficient to stop meteoritic dust. A places. A 10,000-ton ship, for example, hos 1 /32-inch thick aluminum shield should be 320,000 cubic feet immersed when it is float­ sufficient. We cannot hope to protect against chance encounters with large meteoric bodies ing. Now, how will the dust oceon oct in this respect? We ore sofe in concluding that it will anymore than o canvas shield protects oginst act os o fluid of low density: for design pur­ large hailstones. Provision should be mode for replacing sections of the shield as they poses, obout Finally, we ore concerned with foundations for the building and here is the greatest 30 pound per cubic foot. Thus the lower port There seems to be but little else the volume, V, so covered being given by V (ff1 ) Totol weight of building (pounds) 30 to do but lo design the building as o structure which floats in a stationary ocean of dust, The dust will tend to support the lower floor anchored in place by large, heavy blocks or hull. At o 6.6-foot depth, the pressure act­ suspended by long cables from the body of ing on the floor will be just equol to atmos­ the structure. In many ways its construction pheric pressure. If the hull is embedded to will resemble that of a ship at anchor, o freely­ depths greater thon this it must be designed flooting, self-contained t I times the density of water or of our building will be covered with dust, become damaged. difficulty. 0.5 unit. The building need not be streamlined. Fortunately, olso, it so os not to be crushed by the weight of the dust. Cutowoy view of the ,nteroor of the Moon building shows c omportmenls for reseorch, liv,ng quorlers, observotoroes, etc The enlronce ,s of the right end of the building where there is on arr Ioele Pressure doors separate the ma,n oreos from eoch other and prevent loss of internal oir pressure in cose of o puncture of the overhead sh,eld ond bu,/ding by meteors eruov ANO READING C.OMPA.R.TMENT ME.5S HALL SHOPS LAB. LIVING QUARTERS LAB E.MERGE.I\IC.Y OXYGEN 28 space journal J I �Heres a full scientific report on ·space flight-its past, present . . . and future! Since the building is floating, weight must be fairly uniformly distributed if it is not to topple over or settle unevenly. If the Moon's surface proves to be suffi­ ciently solid, it will provide normal support for the building and may be used as foundation blocks. There is no one building uniquely qualified for placement on the Moon. Design require­ ments allow as well as demand a diversity of structural types, proportions, materials and SPACE FLICHT forms. The Buck Rogers portable and infla­ table plastic balloon house is o perfectly practical type of temporary housing. Permanent housing must be fabricated from more durable materials. Aluminum suggests it­ self immediately because of its high strength, Satellites, Spaceships, Space Station and Space Travel low weight, and ease of fabrication. Aluminum also provides a good reflecting surface which Bv CARSBIE C. ADAMS aids in cooling problems. President, National Research and Development Corporation, Atlanta, Georgia The basic elements of the Wonder Build­ ing Corporation of America's "Truss-Skin" NOW-the exciting and factual account of what is involved in space flight -and how our scientists and engineers are bringing us into this new era-is given by ex­ perts. roof system ore well suited for construction of Moon buildings because of its great flexibility and versatility. Some details hove neces­ sarily been modified, including the develop­ ment of means for hermetically sealing the structures. The basic scientific information needed to complete first designs of functional and at­ tractive buildings for use on the Moon ore at hand. Our task has been the very specific one ) of taking these scientific guide lines and pro­ From man's earliest skyward thoughts to today's ACTUAL 7>/cms for Jl,iaht in spare . . . the men, discoveries, and lechnologlral advances responsible are now brought berore you In a striking review. The treatment is soundly technical, fully annotated, and fasci­ nating In Its portrayal or far-reaching concepts and the growth or the means or thelr realization. Here Is an Integrated picture or the ways In which the many fields that lend their knO\\'ledge to astronautics are working together to make spaee flight a reality. You learn about the <'Ontrlbullons made by: ACT NOW Keep up with the fast changing and swiftly moving field of space l l and space science. Fill out the enclosed post-paid card and become a regular reader of SPACE Journal. -material, -space medicine -<hemistry -and olher fields -astrophysics ducing a practical model. -<ommunications -geophyucs -psychology Dr. Wernher von Braun says of the book in his preface, "I am certain that il will soon attain the stature or one of the few great classics on this fasrinal!n� and many-faceted subject." It thoroughly covers the theories, methods, equipment. and pivotal scientitlc and human factors­ for everyone with either a Cun<'­ lional or general interest in any aspect or the development of pracllcal space fl lght. :J.,,ee :Je,,-day Gxaminalion ----,I r------------------ 1 I I I I I I I I McGraw-Hill Book Co., 327 W. 41st St., N.Y.C., Dept. SJ-59-1 Semi me .\<la111,· 81'.\('E FLl(:IIT tor l(J dU,\'.'\. CXltolllli.H 1011 un 8JJ 1)10\lll. fn Ill cl,1\:-, I \\ill ,emit $Li .iO, plW! ft•\\ c·t.•nls th•lheo. or rc1u111 book 1,0!-o.tpai tl. f\\e oa� clt-lht·r,· it ,ou rt.•111h ,, Ith thh (.'OUl)Orl-!-Ulltl' ll'tllrll vrl\ii��\·' Cit, · ... Zone I I ..... ....... I I State, . .. .. . .. I . ...... I �--------------------------� For 1.11-fce, 011t,l<lt.> l '.� .. wil1e �kl:1a\\ 11111 1111·1. X. Y l'o ilioo :<J-5!1•1 29 space journal : �--METEORITES GLOBAL REPORTING * Russia Soviet cosmic ray studies are being pursued at a new Pamira Mountains scientific center in Central Asia. The center is equipped with a 70-ton electromagnet, a cloud chamber, an ionization hodoscope, and automatic control equipment. When the apparatus is assembled, Soviet scientists will be able to detect the flux of cosmic particles over a wide area. Studies of nuclear interac­ * tions at energies of 50-billion electron volts ore going on, too. A Soviet satellite for relaying TV broadcasts appears to be in the planning stages, with scientists anxious to carry out preliminary tests of both the rocket vehicle and the broadcast relay apparatus. The decision to push ahead with such a pion was mode lost January by the TV section of the USSR Scientific and Technical Society of Radio Technology and Electrical Communications. It is claimed that a steady reception would be assured throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. Thus, the TV satellite would give the Russians on "electronic foot" in the door of countries inhabited by * some 2.2 billion persons. The Moscow City Council is sponsoring a contest among Soviet sculptors for the design of a monument in commemoration of the launchin g of Sputnik I. Many models and designs hove been submitted and ore currently on view in Moscow for public reaction. Visitors to the ex­ hibition ore asked to write their comments on v arious designs as on aid to the panel of judges that will make the final selection. * Great Britain A Space medicine symposium, organized by the British Interplanetary Society and the Royal Air Force, Institute of Aviation Medicine, was held on 16 October 1958. The subjects discussed included the effects of conditions Ii kely to be encountered in Space (excessive ac­ * celeration, weightlessness, radiation, temperature extremes, etc.) and means for their mitigation, food supplies, psychology, current research pro grams, etc. The new British rocket testing center "Spadea dam" is now under construction near Carlisle, Cumberland. The project, which includes a complete settlement with restaurants, recreation halls, stores, hospital, fire house, is being erected with g overnment funds. After completion it will be mode available to the rocket and missile divisions of Rolls Royce and de Hovillond. * FRANCE The French atomic scientist C.-N. Mortin hos come to the conclusion that the Russian Sput­ niks were not launched from the Caspian Sea a reo but from the Ukraine. He reports his reasons in 30 Les Satellites Artificiels. space journal • �* United States The United States Air Force recently disclosed that it has been recovering recorded scien­ tific information from outer space with some of its Thor and Atlas missile flights that carry op­ erational nose cones. The nose cone, developed by General Electric, is equipped with a "messenger" that records data during flight. Before the nose cone returns to Earth, the "messenger" is ejected from it by a small jato unit. The "messenger" itself is a small plastic sphere 18 inches in diameter. It contains a tape recorder, a junction box, a battery pack, dye markers, and a sofar sounding bomb. The plastic is strong enough to protect the instruments yet light enough to allow the * "messenger" to float in water. 4 A four-man experimental Space station, launched by an Atlas missile and orbiting 400 miles above Earth, has been proposed by the Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation. According to the proposal which the firm says could be a reality within five years from the starting date, an Atlas without nose cone or associated weapons gear would be fired into orbit. The shell would be equipped as a Space station. Escape gliders are fastened to the back for return to Earth. * United Nations The abolition of national claims to the Moon and the planets of the Solar System is expected to be a major issue on the provisional agenda of the United Nations Assembly. Secretary General Dag Hammarshkjold voicing the proposals of the United States and Russia has called for inter­ national agreement which would rule that outer Space should be a community affair with individual power claims to celestial bodies illegal. 31 space journal �INT 0 SPACE The Moon has beckoned for ten thousand years To tribes and generations of mankind; And now this world is ringing loud with cheers As men set out, another world to find. The Greeks before us watched the stars, and dreamed Of travellers beyond this earthly sphere; They gazed enraptured ot the Moon, which seemed To beckon-and which filled their souls with fear. The Middle Ages came and passed, devoid Of any hope, beyond the realm of dreams That men could ever travel in the void Through which the Moon sends down its golden beams. For space flight once was just a prayer, but now We stand upon the verge of knowing how. by Wade Wellman "Through science we seek to owoken man to his philosophical significance in the setting of the Universe. This activity of science hos never been more dominant than ii is today. for, whereas the men of yesterday were interested in extending their frontiers merely over the face of the Earth, we ore today extending our fron• tiers into Outer Space, thinking not of one world but of many." ANDREW C. IVY "I believe that the time hos arrived for medical investigation of the problems of manned Rocket flight, for it will not be the engineering problems but rather the limits of the human frame that will make the final decision as to whether manned Space flight will eventually become a Reality." WERNHER von BRAUN �dynamics of life in the universe By John Hutley John Hulley was barn in Florida and edu• cated in Europe and the United States, gradu• ating mo9no cum laude from Harvard in 19AA. A veteran of World War II, he has worked far the Office al Strategic Services as a historian and was chief of the European Regional Stoll in the Washington headquarters of the Marshall Pion. Al present he lives in Washington, D. C. where he is doing original research into Space philosophy from the ecological approach. The preceding article (Space Journal, Sum• mer, 1958) described human activity from on ecological aspect: seeking expansion and survival, humans may carry life from planet to planet. Illustrations were taken from na­ ture os we observe it on Eorth 's surface. The next step is to examine the hypothesis from the point of view of nature os we observe it in the Universe around us. At this level, the interacting forces ore simpler ond more fundamental. During most of recorded history, men have gazed upon the heavens with a mixture of wonder and foreboding. In the heavens they personified forces which could give, alter or remove life. These personi.ficotions represented a view of reality which approximated the truth. One important error, however, was the shortness of time-concepts; the end of the world hos been anticipated on specific dotes which turned out to be incorrect. In recent centuries, the pendulum hos swung the other way. The extreme view was adopted that the present order of things is eternal. The first telescopes revealed only stable revolutions in our planetary system. Discarding historical beliefs, early scientists substituted a relaxing view of invariable and perpetual motions in a calm Universe. Today we have bigger telescopes, as well as spectroscopes and radiotelescopes, sup­ plemented by increasing microscopic observa­ tions and a growing kn0wledge of Earth's history. The application of physical sciences takes us out of static analysis and introduces us to the dynamics of the Universe. In the words of C. Payne-Goposchkin, Ten years ago in our hypotheses of cosmic evolution we were thinking in terms of gravitation and light pressure.••. Tomor­ row we may contemplate a galaxy that ts essentially a gravitating, turbulent electromagnet. (Scientific American, September, 19 53) Modern astronomy is approaching a, middle position between the extreme views of earlier times. We live in a cosmos, the forces of which can indeed create, change or remove life. All bodies in the Universe-stars, comets, planets, asteroids, meteors, cosmic clouds and dust-are composed of the same atoms; all are radiant, but in different degrees. Stars rep­ resent the highest degree of atomic activity. Nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures ranging from thousands to millions of degrees. This process transforms an original supply of hydro­ gen into other types of atoms. In their forma­ tive stages, stars may cast off the aggregations of matter which form the lesser bf>dies of the Universe. While the degree of stellar radiation varies, it is always intense. On smaller bodies, atomic activity is sub­ stantially below the level of nuclear fusion. On their surfaces, the relative coolness permits 33 space journal �the stability of atomic structure. Under certain limited conditions, a planetary surface may support processes which cannot occur in the nuclear furnace of a star. With the right combinat· ion of atoms, with sufficient gravity to retain atmosphere, and under the stimulus of stellar radiation, complex transformations and activities may develop on the planetary surface. Chemists have long since shown how the more complex inorganic compounds arise from simpler ones. In recent years, American scien­ tists have also shown how molecules essential te organic life may develop. They have at­ tempted to simulate the conditions and stimuli occurring on our planet several hundred million years ago. At that time, the surface probably consisted of oceans of the simpler atoms. Without plants, there could be no oxygen or ozone shield. Consequently stellar rays would beat directly upon the oceans. The resulting reactions have been partly reproduced in the laboratory, with various groups of atoms and electrical stimuli. The product was amino acids. These are key acids necessary to the build-up of proteins, which in turn ore essential to organic life. What has particularly interested scientists is the fact that varying combinations of atoms under varying stimuli produced amino acids. The tendency to evolve molecules essential for the life process occurs in varying con­ ditions. Together with other finds, these experiments narrow the gap between chemistry and biology. The bridge between the two has not yet been found, but the continuing progress sustains scientific opinion that it exists: life naturally evolves in appropriate situations. So far as we can observe, the evolutionary process may be taking place on at least one other of the planets in our solar system. Ob­ serving the uniformity of the Universe and the commonness of our Sun, leading astronom­ ers today infer that similar processes are occur­ ring on a proportionate number of the bil­ lions of planets estimated to be in our galaxy. On the basis of our present understanding of Earthly evolution, it appears that plant life must come first, because it depends direct- 34 space journal ly on Solar radiation. Once it appears, it discharges oxygen. The resulting build-up of atmosphere absorbs or scatters back about 30 percent of the Solar energy, including particularly the ultraviolet. This protection both preserves life and slows down the rate of transformation at the planetary surface. The evolution of species occurs through genetic mutations. These may be stimulated by residual radioactivity at the surface; by such radiation as pierces the atmosphere; by thermal, chemical and unknown forces, inter­ nal or external. Experiments have shown that mutations are induced by such stimuli. Radiation from stars like our Sun changes susbtantially. In the long run it rises steadily. Medium-term fluctuations raise or lower its intensity. These changes in stellar radiation not only determine whether life will evolve, but also the rate of duration of its evolution. The long-run trend determines how long a planetary surface will be favorable to organic life. According to E. J. Oepik (Scientific American, June, 1958), Solar radiation be­ came sufficiently intense for continuous life on Earth about 750 million years ago. Prior to that date, medium-term fluctuations may hove stimulated the origin of life several separate times before continuous life became possible. About one billion years in the future, similar discontinuities may result from fluctuations around the long-term trend toward excessive radiation. Fifty million miles further from our Sun, Mars now receives much less radiation. Ob­ servations indicate that only primitive forms of life, such as algae, lichens and fungi, have developed on its surface thus far. Provided the water shortage is not prohibitive, it should become more favorable as increasing radia­ tion makes Earth less so. Conceivably the ice-laden surfaces of Jupi­ ter and the further planets may in turn become more hospitable to such life as can adapt to their gravity. At some point, however, the long­ run curve of solar radiation will begin to rise sharply. Our Sun's expansion will reach explosive proportions, and lif�, y,,ill no longer be possible in this planetary system. During the hundreds of millions of years that the long-term trend favors life on a partic- ��ular planet, the medium-term cycle markedly hod acted as barriers to its earlier ver­ affects it. Oepik attributes Earth's 250-million sions. (Scientific Monthly, Moy, 19 57) year recurrence of Ice Ages to periodic de­ Mobility is essential to this process. The clines in Solar radiation. During the six mil­ lion years of an Ice Age, the ice cap may advance and recede. Such glaciations as doily weather. As new species evolve, capable of utilizing environmental forms of energy well as other crustal disturbances select those more effectively than others, species which can adapt to them. through migration. Plants ore as migrant as they expand The evolution of new forms may also be animals in the long run; the seeds of most affected by fluctuations in radiation. Paleon­ botanical species ore adopted to transport tology divides the history of life on Earth by wind or water, on the fur or feathers of into a series of ages. Ages are characterized animals and birds as well as in their intestines. by the prolonged stability of their various Over periods of time, continuing inter­ species; the rate of evolution is slight. Shorter change of species permits those best adopted intervening periods separate the ages; during for any locality to displace those less adopted. these, the extinction of old species and muta­ The result is the development of interdepend­ tion of new ones apparently occur at a massive ent ecological communities which take maxi­ rate. mum advantage of the solar and other energy Changes of temperature and radiation may account for these simultaneous extinc­ tions and mutations. continuing process. The origin, rate, direction and possible conclusion of evolution are forms of interaction between variable stellar radia­ tion and planetary enviroment. The tendency of evolution is to absorb on increasing amount of Solar energy through the activity of increasingly complex forms of life. available in any particular climatic region. Occasional natural calamities may denude Elemental sensitivity to radiation is thus a Simple forms, like algae, utilize Solar energy directly. A fuller use is achieved by interdependent organisms. Plants, insects, birds and other animals are able to absorb more energy by specialization and exchange. Through mutation, these complex interde­ pendent forms evolve. In the words of H. J. Muller, whole areas. Migration permits species to sur­ vive such events and subsequently to revitalize those areas. Land which hos been laid bore by fire, flood or other local catastrophe re­ ceives solar energy only to dissipate it into Space. Gradually the seeds of cru�e plant forms, borne by wind, birds or other carriers, take root. Certain types of insect life migrate into the area, attracted by the plants. When they have adequately developed the top-so-ii, more advanced plants move in, displacing the previous inhabitants and making possible the arrival of higher types of animal life. Thus, over a century or two, the area progresses to what ecologists coll a "climax" community­ a close-knit and delicately balanced system of plants, insects and animals. Living matter, unlike non-living, is by rea­ son of its doubling and redoubling al­ 36 environment varies with seasons, latitudes and Oce0<1s bar mig�ation of most land species other than man. Until times, the ways tending to expand, not like a gos separate that becomes more dilute and feebler varying in their degree of in the process, but with increase of its energy-utiHzation. As a general rule, larger moss and no relenting of its pressure out­ areas developed more advanced forms of life ward and because they afforded greater opportunity crevices. In fact, the pressure of the liv­ for variation and selection. In the Americas ing matter tends to increase with its ex­ and in Australia, species were fewer and often and into diverse corners continents modern supported communities adoption and pansion, since at the same time, by more primitive than those of the Afro-Eurasian means of its mutations, it is trying out all land moss. They were still sparser on islands. sorts of new versions of itself and per­ About a million years ago our highly-spe­ petuating and sending furthest forward cialized form of life evolved on the large con­ Physically weak and dependent on those that con expand the fastest and tinent. that con enter regions and situations that other species for the conversion of space journal Solar �energy, man has an intelligence which per­ mits the use of tools. During 99 percent of the period from then till now, our ancestors ex­ perimented with stones, sharpening them for use in catching and processing other animals; their societies receded and advanced in the face of the cyclical glaciations of the present Ice Age. Then about 10,000 years ago, they developed carpentry. They began to ex­ ploit the environment, and gradually became the most mobile of species. During the last five centuries, men have overcome the ocean barrier. As they crossed the seas with increasing frequency, our fore­ fathers carried other forms of life. In part this process was intentional: they took their favorite trees, flowers and pets, as well as the plants and animals they wanted to consume. Probably to a greater extent, it was unintentional: seeds, insects and sometimes even larger forms of life chanced to accompany the voyagers. Dar­ win, among others, noted the beneficent effects of human mobility in advancing the levels of organic life on areas previously cut off from one another. Transoceanic mobility was a big step when it occurred. But it has become evident that human powers far exceed this accomplish­ ment. Men explore the highest mountains, descend to the oceans' depths, balloon into the atmosphere. The development of aerial Aight and the first probings of outer Space have led to preliminary experiments in the direction of interplanetary exploration. There seems to be no limit to our mobility so long as environments at both ends of the trip are hospitable. To expand our efficiency we have exploited other organic life and reduced the net absorp­ tion of Solar energy. But the cost is small com­ pared to the possible gains. The achievement of interplanetary mobility would make it possi­ ble to expand wherever the temporary condi­ tions in a variable Universe permit. Here on Earth, we are familiar wit-h minor variations and disturbances. Atmospheric changes give us cloudy or clear skies, wind, rain, snow, hail, lightning and the like. We adapt to these. The tilt of our planet's axis gives us seasons, and we adapt to these. Occasional disturbances include local hur­ ricanes, tornadoes, floods and earthquakes. Photograph by Dr. V. Ben Meen CHUBB CRATER FROM THE AIR-The crater, perfectly round and more than two miles across al the rim, is an unmistakable landmark from the air. It was explored and proved to be of meteoritic origin by a Notional Geographic .Society-Royal Ontario Museum expedition during July and August, 1951. Our mobility permits us to min1m1ze losses and afterwards to restore life to demand areas. On a larger scale the cosmos offers many hazards, as well as stimuli, to planetary life. These occur at • a leisurely pace, spanning millions of years. But they are correspondingly much greater, and sometimes destructive to celestial bodies. Long as are the time-periods, they are only fractions of that needed for the evolution of advanced life. Consequently an effective organic response must include suffi­ cient specialization and mobility to adapt to them. In addition to the cycles of Solar radiation, other events occur. As yet we know too little to predict them all; but the time spans between major events appear to be much longer than between minor ones. Some of the hazards of the Universe are relatively small-useful as reminders that they do exist. Perhaps a few thousand meteors strike our atmosphere each day. Occasionally one is large enough to come down to the surface and even more infrequent ones are 37 space journal �A National Geographic Society-Royal Ontario Museum Expedition under the direction of Dr. Vidor Ben Meen, Museum geologist, in 1951 probed the mysterious crater daily for four weeks and concluded that it was formed by the crash of a meteor some 30 to 150 centuries ago. Frederick Chubb (above, left), pro$tpecfor and explorer who first spotted the crater, and Dr. Meen (right) describe their field procedure to a visiting scientist, Dr. I. W. Jones, chief of the Geological Surveys Branch of the Quebec Dep artment of Mines. large enough to mark the surface. Canyon Dioblo in Arizona is ¾-ths of a mile across and 600 feet deep. Chubb Crater in Canada is bigger. Other craters may have been formed and subsequently erased by wind, rain and organic life. The 30,000 craters on the earthward side of the Moon may illustrate what our planet would look like without these erosive forces. Asteroids are much fewer and less likely to collide with our planet. On the other hand, their size-up to 400 miles in diameter­ would end life over a substantial area. Comets range from 4 to 20 times Earth's diameter; but they are so thin that collision would or­ dinarily have little effect. Collisions between planets or other large objects may occur. The asteroid belt, the 38 space journal meteors and the bodies reflecting zodiacal light are all thought to be remnants of a planet which used to circle at one remove from us, between Mars and Jupiter. We do not yet know the cause of its break-up; it hos tentatively been attributed to collision. Another possible type of planetary dis­ turbance is a shift of axis while remaining in orbit. Magnetic analysis of ancient rocks in­ dicates that Earth's polarization has been at various times opposite and perpendicular to its present direction. The location of ice­ cap remnants below, and on, the present equator may be interpretec' in support of what Gold and Hoyle call "polar toppling." However, there is no agreement yet on the evidence or on the internal or external forces which might cause such shifts. �On a water-dominated planet like ours, polar toppling would induce continental floods. A Great Flood, the story of which is told in most ancient sacred/epic works, perhaps really happened. As those oral traditions indicate, however, partial survival of animal life is likely, especially if preparatory measures have been taken. The chance of collision between stars of different galaxies seems to be greater than it is between stars of the same galaxy. Galaxies are quadrillions of miles across, and move at thousands of miles per second. In con­ sequence, their paths occasionally intersect. Members of the Coma metagalaxy, for in­ stance, are sufficiently close together that in­ tersection of two or more of its galaxies must occur every 150 million years on the average. Several galactic intersections are currently under observation (a most striking one at NGC 5128). But they are too far away for us to ascertain much about them, except that they are the loudest transmitters of radio noise in the Universe. Stars are so widely spaced that galaxies probably pass through one another with only a few actual collisions. Near misses might affect stars and their planets in various ways. Such effects could stimulate life on some, retard or destroy it on others. These are the types of turbulence which Comparison of the enlarged view of the Moon's crater Copernicus indicates striking similarities to craters on Earth. © National Geographic Society �·::es-- Locking the Earth's dense atmospheric protection, the Moon hos been scarred by a perpetual deluge of meteorites. scientists are investigating today. Natural simultaneously, conditions, stimuli, events disrupt the courses of celestial bodies, planets just as hurricanes and other phenomena oc­ disturbances casionally overwhelm localities on Earth. liv­ ing organisms must be especially sensitive to will vary. Some variations will encourage the growth of advanced forms of life. Others will such events. not. Some areas may be relatively rich, others The variable character of the Universe probably makes the advancement of evolution and intervening time periods relatively barren in the evolution of plant and animal communities. size, age and radiation. Their planets may The evidence of this planet suggests that hundreds of miltions of years are required vary in size, composition and distance fr<>m to reach our level. Over so long a period different on different planets. 40 their suns. If evolution proceeds on billions of space journal Stars vary in �environmental changes may exceed favorable limits. Radiation is a principal determinant. A planet now well-suited for life may, in a preceding age, have undergone an excessive drop or increase in radiation. Fire or ice may have left only primeval organisms to take ad­ vantage of the intervening favorable period. Other hazards may have had similar effects. More often than not, the evolution of life on a planet may be interrupted before it reaches advanced stages. This conclusion par­ allels biological observations here. Nature's lavish method is to initiate far more life than need ever reach maturity. On the other hand, some planets may sup­ port a more luxuriant variety of life than has evolved on Earth. These would offer species which could advantageously be transferred to less developed planets. Somewhere, too, beings may hove evolved at least as complex and as mobile as ourselves. Possible relation­ ships between such beings from different planets stretch our imagination (and may stretch theirs also). Among planets, differences would probably be much greater than those which our ances­ tors discovered between the continents and islands of Earth. The natural remedy is the some. Mobility allows life to recede, advance and adapt to changing conditions. Through mobility, it can strive for optimum development in every area where conditions ore currently favorable. Migrant life con revitalize areas denuded by turbulence. It can seek opportunities on planets just entering favorable periods. It can explore the attendant bodies around new stars. In the earlier stages of evolution, galac­ tic intersection makes the future of an in­ dividual planet uncertain; but to an advanced and agile community, it offers a rare op­ portunity for intergalactic migration. If time, wisdom and circumstances are ade­ quate, we on Earth may become mobile in Space. Seeking expansion, our species is fully involved in the organic response to the chal­ lenges of the environment. We are part of the Universe. We shore the natural instinct to en­ large the domain of present as well as of future generations. Like those who went before us, we probe new frontiers. We are explorers, pioneers. AT LAST -The Complete International Story of ROCKETRY AND SPACE EXPLORATION By Andrew G. Haley President, International Astronautical Federation HERE IS the whole exciting story of modern rocketry from its earliest beginnings through World War II, right up to today's launchings of missiles and satellites. Here are the famous men and milestones in the development of rocketry . . . facts on rocket production in the U. S. and abroad, and a glimpse of the fantastic future of Man's conquest of space. How Rockets Work This huge book (almost a foot high!) tells you the complete history of rocketry-its origin, the "back­ yard" rocketeers of the 30's--the German V-2, and World War II's contribution. With 170 dramatic il­ lustrations and authoritative text, it explains in simple, nontechnical terms exactly how rockets operate. Describes the Atlas, Titan, Thor, Nike, X-15, rocket airplane of the future, the Sputnik, the Vanguard, and the Explorers. A Glimpse of the Future This u1,-to-the-minute book looks ahead to rockels propelled by ions, nuclear energy, and even light itself; to manned satellites and space craft; and to the in­ credible explorations of the universe that now appear within reach. Examine it Free for 10 Days Simply mail coupon to examine book for 10 days-F'REE. If not delighted with the book, return it; owe nothing. Other­ wise, send only $6.75 (or easy installments, if you wish). D. Von Nostrand Co., De1,t. 401, 120 Alex­ ander St., Princeton, N. J. (Est. 1848). -------------------� D. V•n Nestrand Company, Inc., Dept. 401, 120 Alexander Street, ,rinceton, New Jersey Send me-for 10 days' FREE examination­ Rocketry And Space Exploration. If not tle­ lighted, [ will ret,urn book; owe nothing. Other­ wise, I will remit $1.75, plus small shipping cost, and 52.60 a month for 2 months. Nome _________________ PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY Addres>----------------- □ City ______ Zone_ State______ SA VE-Check box if enclosing full pay­ ment ($6.75) with this coupon. Then WE will pay all shipping costs. Same returnfor-:refund privilege applies. In Canada, Address D. Von Nostrand Company Ltd. 25 Hollinger Rood, Toronto 16, Canada (Price slightly higher) -------------------· 41 space journal �radiation• 1n space travel BY What, effects of stages of tions ore JAN S. then, are the actual limitatic,ns and this radiation? As with the beginning many undertakings, certain Gssump­ sometimes necessary. Here we must PAUL A Geiger Counter used in connection with radiation ex­ periments conducted by the Explorer earth satellites. Jan S. Paul wos born in lowo ond lives in Colifornio. She specialized in nuclear engineer• ing when much of the free World hod never heord of the field. She ocquired her Ph.D. from She served with Phoenix University in Italy. the British ond toter the U.S. forces during World Wor II, ond with the Air force Public lnformollon Office in Korea. Dr. Poul is now specializing in radiation pathology and is en• gaged in teaching ond reseorch. With the confirmation of the presence of bands of dangerous radiation in Space, the concern over the effects of such radiation on man and materials ceased to be the sole con­ cern of nuclear scientists, and became a part of the Space and rocket engineer's thinking as well. What is the significance of all this? First of all it should not be assumed that such find­ ings will prevent, or even appreciably slow down the research now going on; we may still travel to the Moon and beyond in due time. The basic problem of keeping radiation inside a reactor is much the same as that of keeping it out of a Space ship. Therefore, with many of these basic problems already solved, the direction from here will be pri­ marily in adaption and modification. assume that this radiation is the same basic type with which we are familiar on Earth and that the same basic irradiation principles are true. The National Committee on Radiation Exposure has set the permissible radiation dose at 15 roentgens per year, or 0.3 rotent­ gens per week, based on the curie system of measurement in which radioactivity undergoes 3.700 x l 0 10 disintegrations per second. In such case, 15 roentgens is the maximum safety factor for which Space engineers must plan, design, and build. But just what happens to the human organism beyond that limit? Experiments, conducted for the most part on animals, have brought to light the following facts: An excess overall total dose of l 000 roet­ gen will produce a shortening of average life expectancy by five years. An excess dose of l 00 to l 000 roentgens causes a marked decrease in the weight of the spleen and thymus. �The kidneys are affected by excess doses of l 00 to 500 roetgens; and an excess dose of 50 to 300 roentgens was found to affect the sex organs. However, only one organ, the eye, need ever cause immediate concern. It was found that a dose of l 2 .5 roentgens-less than one year's total exposure if directed only at the eyes-could cause tendencies toward cata­ racts. But let us note carefully two words­ could and tendencies. What this means is that for certain persons 1 2 .5 roentgens of radia­ tion on the eyes could be dangerously harm­ ful, just as for some, the sting of a bee or the bite of a spider may prove deadly, while for others the effect would be simply uncom­ fortable. The obvious conclusion appears to be that Space engineers will work out protective ratios to take care of the overall exposure and to keep the dosage below the l 5 roentgen level. Perhaps leaded glass goggles will be the vogue for all Space travelers. Regardless of the technicalities, one fact remains: man will travel through Space safely. These bands of radiation may call for changes in ideas and designs in Space gear; but they will neither halt, nor slow down to any appreciable ex­ tent, man's conquest of Space. foRME.R A.E.C. (MAIRMAN L•EWIS STRAUSS ONCE STATED,'' TM ERE AR'E. THRE E KINDS OF PM VSICISTS; THEO�ETICAL, APPLIED, AND POLITICAL�' THE NAME OF E.OWAR.P TELLE� STANDS OUT IN ALL CAT.A60RIES. As AN EXAMPLE-MIS PORE RESEARCH IN STELLAR FUSION WAS LATER APPLIED IN PE.VELOPIN6 TME MVt>RO<iEN 80MB. TELLER. THEN M A D TO OEFENI> TME DECISION TO MAKE. THE BOMB AGAINST MANY OF MIS SCIENTIFIC. COLLEAGUES LIU> BY ROBERT OPPENHEIMER AND A L ASl<iE SEGMENT OF THE PUBLIC. TELLER, OF <.OUR�E., OID NONE OF THIS SINGLE MANt>ED, BUT HIS L£APERSHIP WON MIM THE UNOFFICIAL TITLE� FATHER OF THE l-f-8oM8': EVEN BEFORE THAT,HE WAS INFLUENTIAL IN PERSUADING &INSTEIN TO WR.ITE HIS NOW-FAMOUS LETTER. TO F.D.R. ,. THAT INITIATED MANHAT TAN PROJEC T' ANO TME ATOMIC AGE. ITELLER. ORN �o YEARS A<:ro 1N HUNGARY, FLED STRIFE TO�N A ND ANTI-SEMITIC EUROPE WHEN THE NAZI THREAT LOOMED. 1-41S STRON6 PEVOTION TO MIS ADOPTED COUNTRY IS EVIDENCED BY HIS M16MLV VOCAL COHCERN OVER RUSSIAN PROGRESS IN SC.IENCE. �E MAS BEEN TIRELESS IN HIS EFFORT TO AWAl(EN TME U.c;. �LLER WORKED E)(TE.NSIVELV WITH THE LATE ENRICO FERMI AT CHtc.AGO'S INSTITUTE FOR NUCLEA� STUDIES. AT PRESENT HE IS CARRYING ON RESEARCH AT CAL-TECH. * * * 43 space journal �project star By Helmut Hoeppner and B. Spencer lsbefl Editor's Nole: Helmut Hoeppner (left) wos born in Ue<kueb, Turkey, in 1911 ond attended the Technical Academy, Chemnitz, Germany, ond the Technical University, Dresden. After groduolion, he worked for the Klemm Aircraft Company in Stuttgart, Germany. He served a short tour in the German Luftwaffe and then became an associate of Dr. Wernher von Broun ot Peene­ munde, where he worked on the development of the V-2 ond other rockets. He become on engineer for the Messerschmitt Aircraft Company, Augsburg, ond helped to develop lhe ME-163 and ME-262 jet aircraft. From 1951 to 1954, he wos employed by the International Business Machine Corporation in Stuttgart. In 1954, at the sug­ gestion of Dr. Wolter Dornberger, he come to America as on aeronautical engineer for the Bell Aircraft Corporation, Buffalo, New York. In 1956, he joined his former co-workers ot Peenemunde at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. He is presently a Senior Scientist for Astronautics with the Chrysler Corporation in Detroit, Michi­ gan. A member of the Germon Rocket Society, the British Interplanetary Society, ond the Ameri­ can Rocket Society, he hos published many articles ond reports in the field of astronautics. B. Spencer Isbell (right) is a native of Bir­ mingham, Alabama, and attended the University of Alobomo, where he majored in both mechani­ cal and aeronautical engineering. Since 1951 ho hos been employed as on Aeronautical Engi­ neer ot Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama. He presently serves on the technical staff Office of Director, Develop111ent Operations Di­ vision, Army Ballistic Missile Agency. He is a member of the American Rocket Society, the British Interplanetary Society, the American As­ sociation for the Advancement of Science, ond the American Astronautical Society. He is on the editorial staff of Astronautical Sciences Review and is editor of SPACE Journal. First Interstellar Voyage by Earthmen Interstellar Space travel will be feasible as soon as man has mastered travel between the planets of our own Solar System. Contrary to the present contention by many astronauts that man's technology will require hundreds, and even thousands, of years to carry him beyond our planets, he can extend his explorations to the stars within a few years after he reaches Mars. If man's past history on Earth is any indication of future events, there is little doubt that he will find the justification and soar past Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and 44 space journal This is on introduction lo a series of articles on interstellar Space travel which SPACE in periodically appear will Journal. The authors confined this presen­ tation to a discussion of the project's concept, assumptions, ond design ap­ proach. A more detailed explanation of the system, design, and performance will be given in future installments of the series. Pluto to one of the Sun's nearest neighbors within the family of stars we know as our galaxy. Today, it is anyone's guess what motiva­ tion will provoke Earthmen to venture beyond the vastness of their own Solar System. Per­ haps John Hulley 1 has found the key to the answer in his ecological approach to a defini­ tion of the role of humanity. Hulley postulates that the primary purpose of the Homosopiens is to carry life from planet to planet. Dr. Philip N. Shockey suggests other possible mo­ tives in this issue of SPACE Journal. The rea­ son may evolve as a by-product of inter­ planetary travel. Exploration of our own Solar System is certain to solve many of today's mysteries. The newfound knowledge could reveal previously unknown dangers to life in this Solar System-triggering one of man's oldest prime movers, self-preservation. As strange as it may seem, astronomers know more in some respects about distant stars than they do about the planets in our own Solar System. The planets ore visible only in the reflected light of the Sun. Stars, on the other hand, shine in their own light, permitting astronomers to learn much about them through spectroscopes and other equip­ ment. An example of this advanced knowl­ edge of the stars is that, by comparison, our Sun is a third magnitude star. There ore 1 The Purpose Of Mon In The Universe", SPACE Journal, summer issue, 1958. �. •· , . • • . ·. ... ... ·. ·, • • • ·♦ ,:. : + • .. . ,- EARTH • -;.,.t" e· � ..· NOTE: FULL SOLAR SYSTEMS NOT SHOW ��It REASONS OF CLARITY AN� ANETS ARE NOT TO SCALE. �billions of stars in the Universe radiating more energy than our Sun. And, too, other stars have many more planets orbiting around them than does our Sun. As the destination solar system for this study, we have selected our Sun's closest neighbor-Proxima Centauri. With this selec­ tion, we assume the existence of a planet "X" orbiting about Proxima Centauri with environ­ mental conditions (gravity, atmosphere, and celestial mechanics) similar to those of Earth. Since the first interstellar Space pioneers will face many circumstances beyond our pres­ ent capacity to foresee, planet "X" could be one hundred million years younger than Earth. Aside from the probability that planet "X" would not be the same age as Earth, the prospect of visiting a planet in an evolutionary stage of development so different from Earth as we know it is of such interest that it could be added to any primary objective Project Star might have. A glance at the illustration on the opposite page will help the reader to appreciate two considerations important to the concept of Project Star. It is apparent that the distance covered by our projected journey is small in relation to distances involved in our Solar System and the Universe as a whole. But, the distance of Proxima Centauri from our Sun and planet seems enormous, indeed, when compared to the interplanetary distances to Venus or Mars. This second consideration should bring to mind the often-published times ( 146 days to Venus, 260 days to Mars) needed for such trips. These time estimates are based on the planet's closest approach to Earth (34.5 million miles for Mars and 25 million miles for Venus) and the speeds attainable from existing or proven designs for propulsion power. The major obstacle to interstellar Space travel, and Project Star, is time and man's limited life span. Before this or any inter­ stellar voyage can be undertaken, a power­ plant must be designed and developed which will propel Space ships at a speed close to that of light (about 186,300 miles per second). At least one distinguished missile and Space expert, Dr. Eugen Sanger, director of the Institute of Jet Propulsion Physics at the Tech­ nical University of Stuttgart, Germany, has 46 space journal predicted that man may be traveling at 670 million miles an hour (almost the speed of light) within the next 50 years. It is not within the scope of this article to discuss either the feasibility of photon (light) propulsion or traveling at or near the speed of light. The design feasibility and relativistic effects will be discussed in future articles of this series and by other contributors to SPACE Journal. The important thing here is to make it clear to the reader that Project Star must be based upon such an extreme assumption. The considerations necessary to Space ship design are relative to both the environmental conditions through which the ship will move and the transportation system. It is logical, therefore, to approach the problems of inter­ stellar travel by considering simultaneously the conditions encountered and the concept of the system. The interstellar Space ship must travel through the Earth's atmosphere and gravita­ tional field, the near vacuum and practically gravity-free conditions beyond the sensible atmosphere, and, finally, descend through the atmosphere and gravitational field of the destination planet. Since we have assumed planet "X" to be 1 00 million years younger than Earth, and we know that Earth's atmos­ phere was more dense at that time, we can assume that planet "X" has a very dense atmosphere. This means that we will have three distinctly different environmental con­ ditions to move through. With this in mind, we can divide the transportaton system into three phases: first, the placement of units into an orbit around Earth; second, the long jour­ ney from the Earth's orbit to an orbit around planet "X"; and third, the placement of units to planet "X". The phases are of course re­ versed for the return trip to Earth. Consider for a moment the complexity 0f the four-dimensional planning necessary for efficient and economical Space travel by an analogy to Earthbound transportation systems which involve only two-dimensional planning. Airplane arrivals and departures are impor­ tant to the operation of our airlines today. But whereas the airplane leaves one stationary airfield and arrives at a second airfield, also stationary; the Space ship departs from � planet or Space satellite which is moving and must meet another planet or orbiting body �PLANET "X" LANDING AND TAKE-OFF VEHICLE ASTRA-d... -001 A ------- --------- ------------------- --- K J 3rd STAGE (RETURN) M F -· K L ----­ -- ----------- ---------, J ---- --- -- -- - - ---- -- --- 2nd STAGE 1st STAGE OXIDlllll DECELERATION STAGE AND LAUNCHING PLATFORM H '"'--...., • CROSS SECTION OF RING CONTAINERS CJ FUEL AND OXIDIZER TANKS A-DETACHABLE NOSE CONE 8-RE-ENTRY NOSE CONE c-CONTROL ROOM D-CREW QUARTERS E-ELEVATOR ENTRANCE F-ENGINE ACCESS TUNNEL G-ELEVATOR SHAFT H-TELESCOPING ELEVATOR SECTION I-ELEVATOR EXIT J-CONVENTIONAL ROCKET ENGINES K-COMBINATION TURBO-RAM JET ENGINES L-FINS/OUTRIGGERS M-WINGS/OUTRIGGERS 47 space journal �Veloc1ty Distribution Curve for Project Star CONSTANT LIGHT SPEE0 \..7 J -t-----�---.,C.---+--� i--------1---�� /c . PLANET 'X' EARTH O 5 YEAR---+ot--------◄.I YEA-S-------..o---0 rnM which is also moving. If for one reason or an­ other an airplane is off schedule, its passen­ gers may be delayed for several hours. Should Space ships for any reason be off schedule, the loss of time for some voyages would amount to years. Suppose, for example, on our return tr-ip from planet "X" to Earth, the Space ship foils to reach Earth's orbit at the calculated time. Earth would have moved on in its path around the Sun. The Space ship could chase ofter Earth and overtake it, pro­ vided there were sufficient propellant avail­ able. If not, the Space ship must "coast" in an orbit near to the Earth's orbit around the Sun until Earth and Space ship have caught up with each other. The loss of time could be more than one year. The vehicle design and system concept for Project Star are based on the three phases of the journey and a four-dimensional planning system already mentioned. For optimum effi­ ciency and economy, the four-dimensional timing system requires that certain units (pro­ pulsion stages, fuel containers, servicing units, etc.) be preplaced into their appropriate positions (orbits) along the way. The pre­ placed units become, in effect, satellites or "Space stations." They are also functional parts of the transportation system and ore assembled in orbit entirely from components (empty containers, instrument comportments, and attachment devices) of the Space vehicles required for the three phases of the journey. This means that a compromise in vehicle design is made to permit the dual purpose and economy. But the compromise in vehicle de­ sign is held to a minimum by optimizing design features, for example, the outrigged engines and staging principle, where the engine propellants ore o/ways burned first 48 journal Sl!)ace r from the lowest containers, even when upper stage engines are operating. This design prin­ ciple is incorporated into all configurations used in Project Star. And once this system of preplacing components into their appropriate orbit of departure and return is established, it becomes a perpetual thing-on optimum sys­ tem for repeated voyages into Space. Just out of the sensible atmosphere (at about 300 miles above the Earth's surface) o satellite hos an orbital velocity of about 17,000 m.p.h. to escape the Earth's gravita­ tional field from that orbit requires a com­ parative velocity of 24,000 m.p.h. The differ­ ence between the obital velocity and escape velocity is 7,000 m.p.h. The difference must be added in the same direction the satellite is moving in it's orbit to toke advantage of it's Earth hos a velocity of orbital velocity. about 64,000 m.p.h. in its orbit around the Sun. To escape the Solar System from the vicinity of the Earth's orbit requires a com­ parative velocity of 92,000 m.p.h. Again, the difference (28,000 m.p.h. between the Earth's orbital velocity and the Solar System's escape velocity must be applied in the some direction the Earth is moving in it's orbit to toke advantage of the orbital velocity. There­ fore, starting from a 300 mile orbit around Earth and applying additional velocity in two steps (first, to escape Earth; second, escape the Sun), we need in addition to the two orbital velocities a total comparative velocity 28,000). When of 35,000 m.p.h. (7,000 both velocity differences are combined into one step instead of the two separate steps described above, only one energy displace­ ment is involved and the additional compara­ tive velocity necessary is 29,000 m.p.h. Solar system escape velocity should be + �attainable within o decode by conventional Centouri. chemically propelled powerplonts. In fact, assembled in the orbit around Earth and will we hove selected the chemical rocket engine propel the outer Space ship to and at a as the power source for the first phase of velocity approaching the speed of light. Project Chemical propulsion is con­ photon-propelled phase will accelerate for sidered superior for this application because half o year at the rote of two G's which is it furnishes o great amount of thrust quickly. only one G more than the acceleration man The chemical endures in his normal course of living on the Star. propulsion system or "Earth booster stage" will be used to pre-place units needed for the second, third, and return phases of the journey into on orbit around Earth. The booster will be recovered and used eventually to transport the Space cabin units and the interstellar passengers into the Earth orbit. The second and long phase of the journey will cover the 25 trillion miles from Earth's orbit to planet "X" 's orbit around Proximo A photon propulsion system will be The surface of Earth. After acceleration at two G's for six months, the Space ship will hove almost reached the speed of light and will cruise at that velocity for about four years and five weeks. There­ after, the ship will decelerate at the rote of two G's for another six months until it has reached the destination planets orbit around Proxima Centouri. The photon propulsion system will be left Interstellar Return Configuration in orbit aroond planet "X". Earthmen are attaching photon thrust unit and re• moving aerodynamic nose cone in preparation for the long outer Space phase of the journey back lo an orbit around Earth. 49 space journal �in an orbit around planet "X" to be picked up again on the return trip through the long phase of outer Space. After the disconnection of the photon unit and other preparations for atmospheric re-entry, the third and last phase of the journey to planet "X" is undertaken. Since the atmosphere of planet "X" is denser than that of Earth, the choice of a third and different type of propulsion power is neces­ sary. The dense atmosphere would enhance the operational efficiency of an air-breathing type of propulsion. A turbo-ramjet powerplant in combination with conventional chemical rockets seems to be ideal for this third phase of our journey. The rockets would be used for the initial port of the descent, until the ship reached the sensible atmosphere of the planet. Whereupon the turbo-ramjet engines would take over. Unlike the ballistic-type trajectory or path of ascent that characterized the first phase of our journey from Earth to See the Stars, Moon, Planets Close Up! 3" ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELESCOPE the orbit around Earth, the approach to a land­ ing on planet "X" must be a path of gentle spirals. The spiral approach is necessary to avoid disaster as a result of aerodynamic heating. By controlling the thrust of the six outrigged turbo-ramjets and with the aid of retro rockets, a final vertical landing can be made after the long, spiralling descent hos sufficiently slowed down the landing croft. The one-way trip to planet "X" will take a little over five years-barring any unforeseen circumstances and provided the scheduled timing for each phase is successfully accom­ published. With certain alterations in the system, the three phases of the journey will be reversed for the return trip to Earth. There­ fore, traveling even near the speed of light, the first interstellar Space trip will require at least ten years. In the event that planet "X" is in a stage of evolution younger than Earth, then the scene illustrated on the cover of this issue of SPACE Journal may well be what the interstellar Space pioneers will first see when they arrive on planet "X". Future installments of this series will further discuss how Project Star may become a reality. 60 to 160 Power-Famous Mt. Palomar Type! An Unusual Buy! -, Assembled-Ready to use l You'll see the Rings of Saturn, the fascinating planet Mars, huge crators on the Moon, Star Clusters, Moons of Jupiter in detail. Galaxies! Equatorial mount will lock on both axes. Aluminized and over­ coated 3" diameter high-speed f/10 mirror. Telescope comes equipped with a 60X eye­ piece and a mounted Barlow Lens, giving you 60 to 160 power. An Optical Finder Telescope, always so es sential, is also included. Sturdy, hardwood, portable tripod. 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Order by Stock Ha.-Send Chock or M.0.-Sotislottion or money bockl WRITE FOR FREE GIANT CATALOG-HB Over 1000 Optical Bargains We are Astronomical Telescope headquarters! 96 page cata­ log shows huge selection of Microscopes, 1:Sinoculars, Satellite Scopes, Solar Furnac es, Infrared Sniperscope� , Telescope Cameras, Camera Holder attachments. Magni­ fiers, Lenses, Prisms, etc., optical parts and accessories. EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO., 50 space journal BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY YOU <:,AVE ME OIJITE A START. I T�OUG.HT FOR A (10f1ENr IT WAS A BILL COLLECTOI\I �SPACE & FORTHCOMING Rev ewed Da vid by L Christen sen Ralph E. Jennings M. Raymond Conrad Swanson trip to the Goethe Festival in Colorado in 1949, Dr. Schweitzer has remained with his patients, books, and Bach. This most recent excursion reflects his profound nobility of spirit and "reverence for life." Peace Or Atomic War? By Albert Schweitzer. -Ralph E. Jennings 47 pages. New York: Henry Holt and Com­ pany. $1.50. Few men in contemporary civilization are as universally admired as Albert Schweitzer. Once Around the Sun. By Ronald Fraser. 160 pages. New York: Macmillan. $3.95. This little addition to his published works con Dr. Fraser's book succeeds admirably in do nothing but enhance his reputation. What is needed now, Dr. Schweitzer feels, is action national Geophysical Year is. This book ties its purpose: to explain just what the Inter­ on the part of all peoples, the United Nations, together all of the many facets of IGY activities and most important, negotiations ot, the high­ est level-the Summit. To quote President and shows the interrelationships between them. Eisenhower, Dr. Schweitzer calls for "a gigan­ way: he presents the known boundaries of tic leap into peace" and a new spirit of good sense and morality. This book cannot be ignored. It is a testament of conscience and of faith for today and tomorrow. In this hour of destiny, Albert Schweitzer, the most notable world citizen of our age, has sounded ao urgent call to end the nuclear-arms race. " ••. At this stage," he says, "we ha-ve the choice of two risks: the one lies in continuing the mad atomic arms-race, with its danger The author organizes his material in a neat geophyics and then explains how various IGY activities will either expand, refute, or prove them. While the average, interested layman thinks of the IGY in terms of Earth satellites, Dr. Fraser-and rightly so-devotes only 12 pages of his book to the rocket and satellite phase of the progr.am. In this way he illustrates that the most glamourous feature of the entire program is merely one link in the chain and of on unavoidable atomic war in the near future; the other in the renunciation of nuclear that it is neither more nor less important than weapons, and in the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union, and the peoples The book does not go into all of the details associated with them, will manage to live in peace. The first holds no hope of a prosperous future; the second does. We must risk the second.'' It will be significant to the reader to learn that this book is based upon three appeals broadcast from Oslo, Norway, on April 28, 29, any other. of each phase of the IGY. Reasonably, it could not. The book is broad in scope, and within the confines of 160 pages it manages to pre­ sent in a clear and readable manner the greatest scientific investigation man has ever undertaken. The fact that the book is so readable is due in no small part to the facility and 30, 1958. Except for a few brief visits to which the English scientists in general have Europe to raise money for his hospital in with their own language. Lambarene in French Equatorial Africa and o -M. Raymond 51 space journal �I_ Satellites, Rockets and Outer Space. By Willy Ley. 128 pages. New York: Signet Key Books, The New American library. $.35. It is hard to say whether this little paper­ back is a synopsis or an introduction to ley's Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel. It appears to be both at once. like the Willy hope that (this book) will be of use to readers who are willing to take a little trouble to think about the subject," declares the author, "but who hove no great acquaintance with the background and physics which would be necessary for a more elaborate examination of our knowledge of things outside the Earth." longer work, the book is written in clear and Although little hos been changed from the simple language, and yet it covers a lot of material. The title almost sums up the con­ first edition, written as it was more than twenty years ago, the reader will find that the tents. In general the book brings some parts basic principles discussed by Dr. Woolley are of the earlier Rockets, Missiles, and Space ittst as important today as they were then. Chapter headings are: 1, Time and Longitude; II, The Solar System; Ill, Stellar Distances and Travel up to date. In addition it contains some excellent advice for youngsters who ore planning a career in astronautics-and even defines the word astronautics. Perhaps Magnitudes; IV, The Temperature of the Stars; its best feature is the author's neat summing up of flying saucer research and his convinc­ V, The Composition of the Stars; VI, The Ga­ laxy; VII, The World's Observatories. The last chapter, by the way, is not a tabulation of a ing dismissal of the saucers as being from great number of observatories, but centers Space. The two short chapters on Russian missiles and American missiles are interesting, attention on a few of those of historical in­ but technical flaws in describing American missiles tend to make the reader doubt the terest plus a short discussion of the Greenwich Observatory, and brief mention of Mt. Wilson, Palomar, and lick. validity of his data on Russian missiles. -C. D. Swanson Another excellent feature of the book is the section "Beyond the Satellites." It is particularly appropriate now since it is con­ cerned primarily with shooting a rocket to the Moon, the problems involved, and what we may expect to gain from such a shot. All in all the book is well worth its price; all the more so since it contains four excellent, full-color pictures of the Jupiter-( launching the first Explorer satellite, the 500,000-pound static test stand at the Army's White Sands Guided Missile Range, the Jupiter missile in flight, and pages. London: Souvenir Press ltd. 1958. First published in Moscow in 1955, this book has been revised to include limited data concerning the first Russian satellites. The English version is translated from an Italian translation of the original, which may ac­ count for some of the numerous technical errors. Although the Russian author prepared the the Redstone missile being fueled. -M. Raymond text under the supervision of a Professor at A Key to the Stars. By R. van der Riet Woolley. sented that is not already well known or the Soviet Academy of Science (V. V. Do­ 144 pages. New York: Philosophical library. $4.75. For a small book (5" X 7 ½" X ½ ") this volume contains a surprising amount of infor­ mation. Dr. Woolley, Astronomer Royal of England, writes as on authority, but in a smooth, flowing and readable manner of pres­ entation. The occasional use of the first person gives conversational flavor to the dis­ cussion of subject matter sometimes difficult to put across to new students of astronomy. 52 Sputnik Into Space. By M. Vassiliev. 147 space journal "I bronravov), there is very little information pre­ readily available to Space enthusiasts. The book does reveal, however, the deep-rooted Soviet devotion to rocketry, and its many Space travel aspects. The fact that the origi­ nal book and similar documentation was available for some time prior to the first Sputnik launching causes one to wonder why the event was not anticipated by the Free World to a greater degree. -D. L. Christenson �REACTION VOX POPULI originated In order to prevent delays, all reoction moil and manu­ scripts submitted to SPACE Journal must be addressed to SPACE Journal, P.O. Box 82, Huntsville, Alabama. Similarly all subscriptions or inquiries concerning sub­ scriptions must be addressed to SPACE Journal, P.O. Box 94, Noshvlle, Tenn. as terms with definite physical meaning) will confirm that.... In fact, I don't believe it is the best way­ and that Mr. Kumogai hos overlooked at least two conditions of lunar village life in his proposed plan. His designs show utilization of horizontal floorspace exactly as any architect Dear Editor, Upon reading the fall, 1958, issue of SPACE Journal, I noted that there was no part Ill to Dr. Stuhlinger's "Life on Other Stars." Is the series complete in two parts or are there more parts forthcoming in future issues? Takoma Park, Md. Ronald Chiabotta There is a third and concluding part to Dr. Stuhlinger's series. We hope to have it ready for the spring, 1959, issue. Needless to say, Dr. Stuhlinger has been very busy lately; but he has promised us the remainder of his series very soon. Editor. would consider it on Earth; but you'd virtually hove no upstairs or downstairs on the Moon. Stepping up on a choir two feet high on Earth is equivalent to stepping up to the next floor, 12 feet overhead, on the Moon. Thus it would be as easy, or easier, to enter a room upstairs as to walk into an adjoining room on the some floor. You con "stock" any deportment vertically as well as spread it horizontally on one floor. With that you'd probably hove romps extending upward in every room; they're as sensible as having a door to every room! Dear Editor, Mr. Kumagai has incorporated something atmosphere new in his village on the Moon, slanting floors inside the village dome-with only the Moon's in several buildings 18 degrees (comparable l /6 gravity. Air resistance to the human body to a 3 degree slope on Earth.) It's quite becomes a definitely noticoble factor when conceivable that the Moon's l 6 gravity will one wonts to drop down three or four floors to not give a man much of a feeling of "up" visit someone else's office. and "down"-to the extent that he might Secondly, there will be a pressure of one When (or even half on atmosphere) these factors ore considered, it have trouble standing up straight, actually seems that the villagers will hove considerable catching opportunity to enhance their sense of "up" and himself toppling over before he realized that he was off-balance. Of course, "down" he would topple slowly with plenty of time will be constantly practicing and developing to react; but that slow motion would be as their sense of balance to a degree known much harder to sense, perhaps not until he was on Earth only to tight-wire performers.... leaning over to quite a sharp angle. In han­ Berkeley, Calif. dling equipment, placing tools where they Reader Gibson has some interesting and relevant points. Added to those which Dr. Rinehart puts forth in his article in the current issue, our readers should get some idea of the complexity of the problem of building a structure of the Moon which will offer its occupants both comfort and some degree of orientation wouldn't roll off, even in such common tasks as eating, it could be rather irritating. Certainly, a sloping floor will enhance any­ one's sense of "up" and "down", and any actor who hos performed on Europe's sloping stages (where "upstage" and "downstage" without slanted floors; also, they Joe Gibson �3 space journal �akin to that which they knew on Earth. With Dr. Rinehart's basic design criteria and the Wonder Building Corporation's scale model, we have taken a positive step in solving the problem. Perhaps other readers, particularly architects, would like to add to our growing knowl­ edge of what must be done to place a village on the Moon. Editor. Dear Editor, . . . These photos show some in-school at­ tempts by early-grade students to model their impressions of Moon features. I hope you find them of interest... certainly serve as a stimulus to young­ sters with a latent interest or inclination for the sciences. Editor. Dear Editor, Let me thank you for the opportunity of reading your magazine. It is a great pleas­ ure to share the views and thoughts of our Space scientists about the physical and philo­ sophical aspects of coming Space travel. .•. I am one of those unfortunate individuals who is able to criticize the objectivity of an article like Dr. von Braun's ["The Acid Test", summer, 1958]-since I have recently come from Soviet Hungary. Between 1941 and today I had the opportunity to make com­ parisons between the German and Russian dictatorship and Western democracy. I might add perhaps some more explanation to Dr. von Braun's, because in our case none of the tyrannies were even our own, though we enjoyed a flowering-if not free-scientific life. I have to say frankly that after a certain time, under those circumstances, there is hardly any individual resistance. The will to survive, the old instinct for self-preservation takes over-up to a point. There was a saying in Hungary, at the beginning of the war, "Somebody is going to eat us. The German at least washes his teeth; the Russian does not." This attitude and the totalitarian state's This attitude and the totalitarian state's first­ preference policy toward science are the ex­ planation. The models were done in clay or salt-flour­ alum medium. They represent one project for the children in expressing their ideas about the Moon in order the better to understand it. Cockeysville, Md. Ruth K. Stroh Considering the fact that the models are made by third graders, we are surprised at their realism; and we wholeheartedly endorse the project. l□aginative proj­ ects such as this one used in conjunction with well-disciplined courses in the three R's can do much to reclaim Ameri­ can primary education from the Dark Ages into which it has fallen during the past 30 years. Such projects, too, must 54 space journal Naturally there is a breaking point, de­ pending upon a nation's pride, patience, and temperament, where something snaps and the nation just simply must kick out some of those teeth regardless of the consequences. That happened in Hungary but because of the lack of any help the only highly negative result was the new caution with which Russia read­ justed its grip individually to each satellites' tolerance level. That is why I agree with every word of "The Acid Test". I do hope that the Western world will make full use of the experience of people like us. Toronto, Canada Steven L. Simon �INFORMATION FREE BY ARNOLD E. HAGEN The following sources of free ond inexpensive moteriols ore mode ovoiloble to the reoders of SPACE Journal as o convenient service in ob taining worthwhile information concerning the astro-sciences ond other related topics. Students, teachers and porents will find mony of the listed items of extreme interest ond value. We ho pe thot this information will be both helpful ond informative. Send requests to the addresses listed below. Each company or institution represented in the column reserves the right to withdraw its offer whenever it sees fit. Civic orgonizotions, government agencies and industrial firms ore encouraged to submit ma­ terial for consideration for use in this column. Send moteriol to Arnold E. Hagen, "INFORMA­ TION FREE," P. 0. Box 703, Compton, Colifornio. SONIC BOOM-SOUND OF PROG­ RESS-This interesting booklet that is concerned with supersonic fighter aircraft that con 0y foster than the speed of sound in level 0ight should be a must for all scientifically minded people. Includes many ex­ cellent drawings showing shock waves created by airplanes flying at speeds foster than sound. North American Aviation, Inc., Dept. IF, International Airport, Los Angeles 45, California. THE EARTH AND STAR-Included in this 16-poge booklet ore the an­ swers to such questions as: How much does the Earth weigh? How fast does it spin? How fast does it move through Space? These answers and a wealth of additional fascinat­ ing information ore included in this timely booklet. Many photographs ond illustrations in color. SPACE TRAVEL & GUIDED MIS­ SILES-Mon hos envisioned travel through space for hundreds of years. Today it is rapidly approaching real­ ity. This 14-poge booklet explains clearly and factually how Space 0ight engineers base their research on scientific discoveries and precise mathematics. It also tells on exciting story of how scientists developed the guided missile, the world's most amazing weapon. Field Enterprises Educational Corp., Public Relations, Dept. 1 F, Merchan­ dise Mort Plaza, Chicago 54, Illinois. ASTRO MURALS-Send for this interesting catalog that tells you how you con bring the exciting wonders of outer Space right into your own home. These ore the first exploita­ tion of famous celestial phenomena for use as decorative wall covering in homes, schools, and institutions. For o sense of space and sheer na­ tural beauty with a classic timeless quality, these spectacular block and white murals ore unsurpassed. Astra Murals is the only company in the entire world selling celestial en­ largements exclusively. These "resis­ tone" treated murals ore exciting for use in dens, living and bedrooms. Astro Murals Inc., Dept IF, 231 W. 58 St., New York, N. Y. THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE-Informa­ tion on how to sell your unpotented ideas, useful gadgets-devices for cash or royalty. This interesting �booklet is looded with useful infor­ motion concerning unpotented inven­ tions. Inventor's Creotive Service, Dept IF, 354 South Spring Street, Los Angeles 13, Colifornio. CLOUD CLUES TO HELP MAKE WEATHER WORK FOR YOU-Just obout everyone wonts to be some­ thing of o weother forecaster, but you'll probably need all the help you con get in order to become your own reliable weather man. By leafing through this 15-poge booklet, you'll see the cloud sequences ond learn the different kinds of clouds that fol. low each other in a kind of weather pattern. Excellent photographs and illustrations in this fact-filled educa­ tional booklet. New Holand Machine Company, Dept IF, New Holland, Pennsylvonio. SHOULD YOU BE AN ATOMIC SCIENTIST?-This article, originally addressed to parents, first appeored os on advertisement in the Saturday Evening Post, Lodies' Home Journal ond Collier's,. Written by Dr. Law­ rence R. Hofstad, vice president in charge of the research staff of Gen­ eral Motors. Excellent material for educators, guidance workers and parents. New York life Insurance Company, Dept IF, 51 Madison Avenue, New York 10, N.Y. SOME FACTS ABOUT THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS-Send for o copy of this informative publication which gives detailed informotion about the world's largest library. It was created by and for Congress in 1800. Its usefulness today is extended not only to Congress but also, through many services, lo other government agen­ cies, to other libraries throughout the country and the world, ond to the generol public. Office of the Secretory, Dept IF, librory of Congress, Woshington 25, D.C. vary from time to time as copies of some of the publications become ex­ hausted and new ones ore added. For this reason individual booklets ore not listed in this notice. Excel­ lent material for educotionol and ref­ erence use. United Stoles Atomic Energy Com­ mission, Dept IF, Educational Services Branch, Washington 25, D.C. CAREERS IN SCIENCE-Information obout careers in science at the No­ tional Bureau of Standards. The No­ tional Bureou of Standards is o mojor laboratory of the Federal government. It is devoted to re­ search and development in the physi­ col sciences and provides the bosoc standards of physical measurements for government, science and industry. U.S. Deportment of Commerce, No­ tional Bureau of Standards, Dept IF, Washington 25, D.C. THE EYE OF THE INTERCEPTOR­ Since World Wor II, all-weather in­ terceptors hove become the backbone of our air defense. Their evolution hos been impressive. Read about the interceptor, its control system, and its armament. Also important facts about the job of the airborne ormo• ment-control system. GUIDED MISSILES FROM ENGI­ NEERING THROUGH PRODUCTION­ Interesting scientific booklet that tells about a new concept for on age-old weapon. Excellent material for Social Studies and Science classes. KEY MAN IN ELECTRONICS MANU­ FACTURING, THE ENGINEER-The engineer at Hughes Electronics Manu­ facturing Activity in El Segundo, Calif., is o special kind of man .. . with special abilities and special in­ terests. Read this interesting booklet and learn obout the oc:tuol service that these important men provide for the Notion's defense. THIS IS HUGHES AIRCRAFT COM­ PANY . • . ELECTRONIC RESEARCH . ..DEVELOPMENT .•.MANUFAC­ TURING-This 28 page booklet is on over-all panorama of Hughes-<>f the organization, people and octivities which hove built the company. To­ day, engaged exclusively in elec• lronics research, development and manufacturer, it is on acknowledged leader in airborne weapon systems and guided missiles for the Military ...ground systems for aircrofl sur­ veillance and control ••. and com­ ponents, instruments and systems for commercial and industrial electronics. Hughes Aircraft Company, Public Relations Department, Culver City, California. FREE MAILING SERVICE-to teach­ ers who request leaching aids, NAEC sends (to elementary teachers) o free copy of Aviation Education Bibli­ ography (Elementary School), pictures, and other teaching aids. Suitable teaching materials are sent also to secondary teachers. In addition Sky­ lights, the NAEC monthly fact sheet, is sent throughout the school year without charge to all teachers re­ questing it. To boys and girls who request pictures ond facts, NAEC sends free photographs, booklets, and Skylights. National Aviation Education Coun­ cil, 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W. Washington 6, D.C. THE COPYRIGHT OFFICE OF THE U.S. A.-This JO-page booklet in­ cludes brief answers to some com­ mon questions about copyright, o listing of important dates, o chart showing registration trends, as well as lists of copyright office publica­ tions and application forms. Copyright Office, Dept IF, The Li• brary of Congress, Washington 25, D.C. THE GYROSCOPE THROUGH THE AGES-The gyroscope is the oldest mechanism in the universe. It existed before any living thing could be found on the Earth's surface becouse the world itself is o gyroscope. learn more about this interesting subject by reading this 2B-poge booklet. Sperry Gyroscope Company, Dept IF, Division of Sperry Rand Corpora­ tion, Great Neck, l. l. New York. ATOMIC ENERGY INFORMATION -The Educational Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission distrib­ utes, upon request, in single copies, educational kits at the elementary, high school, college and teacher lev­ els. The items that go into these kits 56 space journal " ..and HE wonts to know how the Braves come out?" �C r 'r I I l OBJECTIVE: Cape Canaveral makes news-many failures Hnd a few successes. To the man in the street, the Space ,\ge is a competition of sputniks, a sports event with the solemn overtones of science. Survival Journal. com c� ing the> l..nowledge of the e\.perls interpreted for the la� man. The immediate and cager acceptance of SPACE Journal is indicative of its ultimately enormous audience - and the enormous potential of its market. A breakdown of SPACE Journal's paid subscriptions is as follows: Business and industry. 43..5%; ccllege ancl military, 12.2%; other students, 18%; libraries, 4.5%; teachers, 3.3%; non scientific professions, 4.3%, information and mco1a. ad\'crnsing writers, 3.6%; general, IO'L The military are engaged in a race for effective intercontinental ballistics, with subsec1uent unclear corollaries. The ultimate objective of the Space Age is survival - not merely from supersonic bombs and satellites but from the limitations of the earth planet. As an advertising medium, SPACE Journal's impact and readership cannot be gauged b� its still unJ..-nown net paid circulation. The spiraling population forecasts a ghetto civilization with insufficient food and depleted energ� sources. Our future mine fields ma) lie in asteroids, our central st,1tions operate on cosmic rays, our food supply and suburban developments depend on colonies on other planets. SPACE Journal advertisers include: Avco Research & Development Laboratory . Brown Engineering Company, Inc . . . Chrysler Corporation . . . Douglas Aircraft Company . . . Edmund Scientific Company . . . General Astro,uwtics Corporation . . . The Martin Company ortll American Aviation. Inc., Rocketdyne Division . . . D. Van ostrand Company, Inc. . . Precision E11gineering, Inc. . . . Reaction Motors, Tnc . . . . Reynolds Metals Company . . . RolJhins Aviation . . . Sperry Rand Corporation, Ford Instrument Compan11 Division . . . Thiokol Chemical Corporation, Redstone Division. Missiles are already a big business. costing over $3..5 billion, with a possible e\'entual $20 billion program. Toda� 22 industries, 3000 suppliers and 80,000 people arc involved. The need for information extends not onh to industry but to all the armed forces, the entire educational system. and the taxpayer who must foot the bill. Herein lies the field of SPACE SP ACE•J ournal published by Space Enterprises, Inc., Tuck Building, ashville, Tenn. AD\'£1\TISI'sG RLPRESE"ITATI\'ES: Hale Carey, 420 Lexington Avenue, DOUGLAS C. LANCE ew York Citv. ,I 1948 Highland Oaks Drive, Arc adia, California • Telephone Elgin 5-6769 �e e e e e THE NECESSITY OF SPACE TRAVEL - BY DR. PHILIP N. SHOCKEY DYNAMICS OF LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE - BY JOHN HULLEY RELATIVITY AND SPACE FUNDAMENTALS - BY JAMES P. GARDNER THE RADIATION HAZARD TO SPACE TRAVEL - BY DR. JAN S. PAUL DESIGN FOR BUILDINGS ON THE MOON - BY DR. JOHN S. RINEHART SURVIVAL IN SPACE - BY DR. SIEGFRIED J. GERATHEWOHL for on Uncreased Cover, Send 25c to Space Enterprises, Box 94, Nashville, Tenn. SPACE JOURNAL PROUDLY PRESENTS ARTIST HARRY LANGE'S PANORAMA OF EARTH'S FIRST INTERSTELLAR SPACE SHIP (DESIGNED BY ASTRONAUTICAL ENGINEERS HELMUT HOEPPNER AND B. SPENCER ISBELL) LANDING IN ANOTHER SOLAR SYSTEM. WITH A DEFT HAND AND PAINSTAKING CARE FOR AUTHENTIC DETAIL, LANGE HAS CAPTURED THE FASCINATING SCENE ENVISIONED BY DR. PHILIP SHOCKEY IN "THE NECESSITY OF SPACE TRAVEL" APPEARING IN THIS EDITION. DR. SHOCKEY SUGGESTS THE PROBABILITY THAT SHOULD EARTH MANS' FIRST INTERSTELLAR SPACE TRAVELERS FINO A PLANET WITH NEAR-EARTH ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, THE PLANET WOULD NOT BE IN THE SAME EVOLUTIONARY STAGE AS EARTH. THIS RENDERING SHOWS THE DESTINATION PLANET IN ITS CRETACEOUS PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. THE MONSTERS CREATED BY NATURE AND MAN STANO IN STARK CONTRAST. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i> Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 5, March-May 1959. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rocket City Astronomical Association Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Von Braun Astronomical Society, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context vbas_space_journal_055_116 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Cold War Extraterrestrial radiation General relativity (Physics) Interstellar travel Life on other planets Lunar bases Outer space--Exploration Space vehicles Space race--United States--History--20th century Description An account of the resource This issue includes a statement announcing <i>Space Journal</i>'s termination of all connections with the U.S. military and with the Rocket City Astronomical Association. At the time, commander of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal Gen. John B. Medaris was concerned that the publishers and writers, all in the employ of ABMA, were using their government positions for personal gain through the magazine. Topics covered in the issue include the dangers and feasibility of space travel, designing buildings for life on the Moon, and the existence of life elsewhere in the universe. Provenance A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource. This item is digital only. The item was generously lent to UAH by the Von Braun Astronomical Society for digitization. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/518/spc_mitc_063_113.pdf 9969dba2a7c58180f9469f2463d76674 PDF Text Text H DECEMBER D E D I C A T E D "JOLIRNAL T 0 T HE ASTRO - SCIENCES ALGAE AND LICHENS AGAINST A BACKGROUND OF ION POW��ED SPACE VEHICLES ROY MARQUARDT-RAMJET MAN • A SEARCH FOR THE SPACE MAN'S FOOD PRIMITIVE FEAR-A FIRST APPROACH TO THE UNIVERSE SPACE AND THE LAW THE WEIGHTLESS MAN SO CENTS �SPACE AGE EDUCATION for exciting, highly paid careers · in the space age • • e-\ Complete AERONAUTICAL and ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Technology Courses in two years; ...BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE in one additional year. . �� .- ._--- , . .,. Nor#hrop lns#i#u#e _, rec:hn-logy ,NORTHROP AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE) 1117 West Arbor Vitae Street Inglewood I, California 1, Callfor,ua Pl•••• send me 1mmed1ately the Northrop Catalog, employment data, and schedule of class start1n1 dates. I am interested ,n: :J Aeronautocal Eng,neering Technology O Electronic Eng1neerin1 Technology O Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Technology D Airframe and Powerplant Mechanic: O Jet Eng,ne Overhaul and Maintenance Name ........ . Age,., Address . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Zone ... State ......., City... • . Veterans, Check here O for Spec,al Veteran Training Information. �DECEMBER 1959 VOL. 2 NO. 2 BOARD OF CONSUlTANTS Profusor Herm•nn Obuth Dr. Herbertus Strughold Dr. Eu9en Saenger Helmut Hoeppner Dr. Joh•nnas Gi■v■n Ronald C. Wdhford Dr. Karel Hujer Frederick I. Ordway, 111 EDITOR ARTICLES B. Spencer hbell ASSOCIATE EDITORS R•lph E. Jennings James L. 0dnieh, Jr. Mitchell R. Sharpe, Jr. ASSISTANT EDITOR David l. Christensen LAYOUT DIRECTOR ROY MARQUARDT-RAMJET MAN . 8 A SEARCH FOR THE SPACE MAN'S FOOD .10 THE WEIGHTLESS MAN .13 PRIMITIVE FEAR .16 SPACE AND THE LAW . .19 ATLAS MISSILE ...........•... .21 GRAPHICS DIRECTOR Lt■ R. Moor■, Jr. DEPARTMENTS ART DIRECTOR H,ury H.•K. Lang■ BUSINESS MANAGER llticht1rd T. Hugy PRODUCTION MANAGER ADVERTISING DIRECTOR EDITORIAL ... 3 NASA NEWS 4 WASHINGTON REPORT ......... 7 NEW PRODUCTS ......... 29 METEORITES 32 REACTION-LETTERS .34 FREE INFORMATION PUBLISHER Fred D. Wriqhr .... . 35 BOOKS .36 SPACE FOCUS .38 double ,paced; plus: two c.rbons. Ke.y ell Short articles of SOO to 3000 words are preferred, Send t�e orig1nal oft white bond paper,oftypewritten, the autho� and a short b1ogrephieal note .,r.o required for illudrations wiih 11,e teid. Pho109rdphs should be 8 x 10 inc.hu on gto_uy _stoc\. A picture Send matenol to SPACE Journlll, P. 0. Sox 82, Hvnhville, publication. Security clearance for all materi_al ,ubmitred is the res_pons1b1ltty of the outhor. Alabame. All material accepted for publication becomes the e)lclus1ve property of SPACE Journol. SUBMISSION Of MATERIAL PUBLISHING SPACE Journal Is pubLs►ed Quarterly by SPACE Enterprises, Inc. ·n N&1hvil le, Tenne.ssee. e f it 11 u u c f� r ·�� cd!��),, t�l.00�'1� :iiJ:s: ��erg �� i ��;�d f{��i:,�e�� tt�:�!����: 'Sr;�� ��� ;too" 0 by SPACE Enterpri1,es, Inc. 1�9. All righh res.erved. NC\ 1 0 0t No,h ville, 0 �td a N�h"v111� .-'Te:��1°:e. �,�:�i. fu'iSiAc�"j::r� i� Advertising Rates will be fur"ished on request to SPACE Journal, Nashville, T enneuee. We,tem states: Ren Averill Company, 232 North Loi:e Ave., P,ua• dona, California, Telephone RYt1n 1.9291, Eastern st•tes: Murray Bernl-iard, 10 E. ◄◄fh St., Now York City, Telephone OXford 7-S-420. ADVERTISING �Solid Fuels are simple- .• �but! Whether the rocket power be for the Army's Sergeant, the Air Force's )1inuteman or tomorrow's 50,000,000 lb. thrust motor it be­ gins with globs and strands of fuel held in the asbestos-gloved hands of the research chemists. For more than ten years the research scientists in THIOKOL's Rocket and Chemical Divisions have been continuously engaged in rapidly expanding programs of propellant development. In these endeavors one fact is common: new propellants are cast into rocket motors only after many thousands of hours have gone into research and testing. For every successful propellant formula there are many, many frustrating failures. This is the way of ,·esearch. Success, even though it comes slowly, is the reward. Fortunately, success has come to TmoKOL research scientists in abundance and with regularity. The variety of career oppor­ tunities at THIOKOL is large and expanding, including: Propellant analysis and formula­ tion • Polymer research • Fluo­ rine and metal hydrides synthesis • Shock wave phenomena • Com­ bustion processes • High vacuum techniques • Fast reaction kinet­ ics • Sen•o system and electro mechanical design • Instrumen­ tation • Ion and plasma propu 1Magnetohydrodynamics sion • Thermodynamics • Solid slate physics. There may be a place for you on the team, working on TmOKOL - develop ed-and-built rocket powerplants used in the Falcon, Sergeant, Matador, Nike Her­ cules, Lacrosse, X-17, Minute­ man, Pershing, Nike Zeus, Sparrow ITI, X-15, Bomarc, Lit­ tle Joe, and Bullpup. For further information con­ tact Personnel Director of any of these plants: Huntsville, Ala.; Elkton, Md.; )loss Point, )[iss.; Brigham City, Utah; Trenton, N. J.; Bristol, Pa.; Denville, N. J.; Marshall, Texas. ALWAYS A BRIDESMAID? The question that we should be putting to ourselves these days is the implication of the latest Soviet success in the rocket field (in which they excell so well). If we learned nothing else from Lunik I, II and Ill, we have learned that the Washington govern­ ment has not been exactly truthful with its pronouncements of "closing the missile gap". Many will now insist that they suspected that we were further behind than was officially admitted, but all of us were taken in to some extent. We shouldn't cry aver spilt milk but if we can't learn from the school of hard knocks that the Luniks' have taken us through, then we hod better get out of the business. Lack of a centralized Authority with a planned, sensible program is our problem. The lost football team that tried what the Washington government is trying in the Space race didn't fore any better than our space effort. The University of Miami (Flo.) tried to divide authority lost season, different coaches were responsible for offense, defense, kicking, poss defense, etc. The result was that a team picked by many to go to the Orange Bowl on New Years day had one of their worst seasons on record. But, ofter all football is only a game and should be played as such, you can build character whether you win games or not. And, if winning games is important, you con always look to next year. But in the deadly serious business of ICBMs' with nuclear capabilities, the philosophy that you con run the score­ board clock back and start again "all even" is a mistake that we cannot afford to make. In the nuclear game I doubt if our adversary will ploy according ta our set of rules, even if he says he might. We must consolidate our efforts and not hove our potential divided between the NASA, ARPA, Air Force, Army, Navy and the Marines. We need a single agency with power of decision over all space activities. What would be wrong with giving NASA the teeth it needs and getting the show on the rood. If we lose is Research to the Core this game, we lose more than a New years bowl invitation. THIOKOL CHEMICAL CORPORATION Bristol, Pennsylvania CIRegistered trademark for the Throkol Chemical Corp, for Us rocket propellanls, liquid pol�men, plasllc1zers and other chemical products. 3 space journal �NASA Report A bri�f history-the NASA began operations on Oct. l, 1958. It absorbed the personnel and facilities of the Notional Advisory Com­ mittee for Aeronautics, consisting of the nearly 8,000 scientists, engineers and technical and administrative personnel in the Washington headquarters and five field laboratories. The field installations are: ( 1I High Speed Flight Station, Edwards, California; (21 Langley Re­ search Center, Langley Field, Virginia; 131 Pilotless Aircraft Research Station, Wallops Island, Virginia; 141 Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California; (51 and the Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. The NASA also has a new space projects center under construction at Beltsville, Mary­ land, near Washington, D.C. It is scheduled to go into operation in early 1960. In addition to the program that the NASA was to implement after completion of its initial organization, the NASA took over di­ rection of five projects that were already under way. These were: (1I A number of Advanced Research Proj­ ects Administration and Air Force engine development research programs, including their work on nuclear and fluorine rocket engines and study and development of the 1 .5 million-pound thrust single chamber rocket engine. (21 Five space probes which were under direction of ARPA. (31 Project Vanguard, including the 160 scientists of the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. (41 Three satellite projects: 12 foot ond 100 foot diameter inflatable spheres and cosmic ray experiment. (51 Certain other projects under construc­ tion by ABMA. In the week of Oct. 20th, 1959, the NASA obtained the transfer of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to the NASA. This takes the Army out of the space field and gives the 4 space journal NASA the most famous research team in the free world. This added facility should give the NASA the finest research teams in the world. Objectives of NASA-the three most ambi­ tious projects that the NASA is now undertak­ ing are: 1.5 million pound thrust booster. The en­ gine is a booster rocket of l million pounds of nominal thrust, capable of being developed to a l .5 million-pounds-thrust. It will use liquid oxygen and hydrocarbon propellents but could be adapted for other fuels. Special attention will be placed on methods of simpli­ fying directional thrust-control and of pressur­ izing propellant tanks. The program will provide a booster of great size for payloads and experiments weighing several tons. The booster will eventually be used to propel manned satellites and space craft. It will also be clustered to provide large payloads. Manned Satellites-Project Mercury. Proj­ ect Mercury hos a three-fold objective: (11 to study man's capabilities for space flight, (21 to place a manned satellite in orbit around the earth, and (3) to recover the man safely. The capsule will be conical, about seven feet in diameter at the base and ten feet high. The pilot will lie in a couch-like frame, his back supported against the intense gravity stresses of take-off and re-entry. The base of the capsule will be mounted on on Atlas rocket. A suitable shield will protect him from the high friction-induced heat of atmospheric re-entry. The satellite capsule will be launched into o circular orbit 100 to 150 miles above the surface of the Earth at a speed of l 8,000 miles per hour. During the landing or re­ covery phase, retro-rockets attached to the capsule will fire, slowing the capsule enough �to drop it out of orbit. The Earth's atmos­ pheric blanket will broke the capsule even more. The last phase will take place when parachutes lower it to a landing. Escape mechanisms will be provided for emergency landings. Careful selection and screening hos reduced to seven the number of candidates for the capsule ride. Preliminary tests hove revealed that the capsule into orbit and bock will be a relatively safe journey. Nuclear Energy Applications. The Atomic Energy Commission hos longrange programs for developing nuclear reactors for application in spacecraft. The AEC also hos under de­ velopment small, light-weight nuclear power plants to provide electricity over long periods for satellite instrumentation and other space application-project SNAP (Systems for Nu­ clear Auxiliary Power). In addition to power from reactors, conversion of nuclear energy into electricity is being sought. The recently demonstrated SNAP Ill device which produces electricity by means of solid-slate converters from the energy released by the radioactive decoy of polonium or other radioisotopes. SNAP Ill hos no moving ports, is very small and light, and hos a long use-life. The X-15 flight into space. The latest in a series of advanced research vehicles for high-speed, high-altitude experiments is the X-15 Rocket-Powered Research Aircraft. A joint undertaking of the Air Force, Navy, and NASA, the X-15 is expected lo fly at speeds in excess of 3,600 miles per hour and to reach altitudes of l 00 miles. It will be dropped from a B-52 bomber. The drop-launch will enable it to make a steep power climb toward the fringes of space, after which it will toke a long glide bock to earth. Through the flights of the X-15 the NASA will gather information about: (1) pilot reac­ tion to flight during short periods of weight- lessness; (2) severe aerodynamic heating caused by air friction at hypersonic speeds; (3) airplane stability and new types of aero­ dynamic control surfaces to keep the airplane flying on course at these great speeds; (41 rocket reaction control systems when the air­ plane is too high for aerodynamic forces to be sufficient; and (5) many of the exit, re-en­ try, and lo11ding problems that spacecraft will encounter. Results of flights by the X-15 will have an important bearing on the manned space vehicle projects. Space Sphere. At 5:45 p.m. EST, a 100 foot sphere was launched from the Wallops Island facility of the Notional Aeronautical and Space Administration. The launching, which took place on October 28, 1959 was to, in port, test the spheroid's ability to reflect the rays of the sun as it set. As the ballon descended from clear skies into the Atlantic Ocean, it was reported from Moine to South Carolina. It was visible for about ten minutes before it was lost behind the horizon and fell about 500 miles due east of Wallops Island. The launching was a test of the inflatable satellites which ore to be used in communi­ cations experiments, as reflectors of radio and radar beams in space. Professor Robert Brown, director of the New Hoven, Conn., moon-watch station, fol­ lowed the sphere and, before he learned what it was, said "it was the craziest thing in the world." 5 space journal �The sphere was launched by a two-stage racket that was 32 ½ feet high and weighed 5 ½ tons al take-off. With an initial thrust of 130,000 pounds, this was the largest ve­ Standing as high as a ten story building when inflated, the ballon was packed into a The sphere was made of a mylar plastic coated with aluminum half of one thousandth of an inch thick. Inflation was completed by the re­ lease of four pounds of water that was in plastic bags. The water vaporized inside the sphere and inflated it to 523,598 cubic feet. It reached a peak altitude of 253 statue hicle yet fired at Wallops Island. 26 ½ sphere for its ride aloft. inside it. miles, and was tracked for ten minutes by radar at several stations. It was tracked optically by the Lindon laboratory station near Boston. A telemetry radio transmitter was inside Upon ejection from its container, the the sphere to record its performance, but the sphere started inflating from the residual air information it broadcast is not yet available. 6 space journal �Washington Report STEEL STRIKE Opinion on the hill is that the union stand has gone too far in regards to the current hike. Many representatives are concerned with rising un-employment because of lack of steel. Even pro-union members cannot defend strike in face of economy slow-down. Even more heat has been put on unions with statements by Glennon, NASA head, that missile production has been hurt by the strike and that work on the Vega missile has been delayed as much as three months. No action will take place in congress in the next session because of the election year, but look for a move to get under way in 61. DEFENSE CUT-BACKS Economy is the order of the day among all the servcies, with even the Air Force feeling the pinch. All will cut some manpower for next year and the Air Force will probably reduce the number of fighter squadrons it has active. There is speculation around Washington that all of the Air Force reduction in spending is not caused by lack of funds, but by a lop flight decision to "leap-frog" into a more advanced type of missile. This would be comparable to the Russian move to missiles rather than try and develop a long range bomber. This decision gave them much of their head start in the missile race. MISSILES Minuteman and Atlas will probably get full go-ahead. Titan will probably be cut back. Most Titan will get is a small number of squadrons and some use in space probes and experiments. Air-launched ballistic missile is still very much in "air" and no firm decision has been made. This project will probably be shelved in favor of a longer range ramjet model. Long range bombers are almost out. Missiles to get the axe in the next twelve months are; Nike-Zeus, Bomarc, Titan, Nike-Hercules, Falcon, Mace, and the air-launched GAM-87A. NUCLEAR PROPULSION PROGRAM This project will be continued with General Electric and Marquardt donig most of the work. MOVE OF ASMA TO NASA This came as no shock to most on capital hill. Should have been done lost October. Still not enough authority for NASA. Must have more and broader powers if the ever increasing gap between US and USSR is to be closed. Out look for next year. Gap will not close instead ii will widen with several "new soviet first. Most logical next accomplishment? Man in orbit, per­ haps by 1960. Next, will be successful moon landing with extensive data gathered. Perhaps a shot at Mars with photos similar to recent Moon shots. 7 space journal �roy marquardt, the ramjet man by Lois Philmus Since time began, man's imagfoation aruf_ in­ genuity has perpetrated the great explorations of the worM. And now it is man's faculties a{{ain that will permit the greatest exploration of all time the plun{!.e into space and the universe. Beginning a new series on the men wit/, the brain pou·er to provide the where­ withal to get there. Roy Marquardt, Company. 8 space journal founder o( the Marquardt Aircrolt �through ramjet application could be music to the ears of the spacemen. As we advance farther and farther into the technology of travel into the universe, the entire program is threatened by estimates of the fantastic boost­ er weights required to thrust larger and larger payloads farther and farther into space. Bui what of the ramjet's one Aaw-impo­ tence in static thrust? Marquardt's company in Von Nuys is working on that solution also by combining the advantages of the ramjet with those of the rocket. The marriage of a chemically powered rocket and the ramjet would provide the ad­ vantges of the rocket's static thrust to operate out of the atmosphere with the ramjet's supe­ rior performance at high Moch numbers while still in the atmosphere. Possible? Revealed Marquardt: "We have a working model under test." Known as the perturbation cycle ramjet, o scale model has been successfully run com­ "The rom;et is not through by o long way." bining ramjet-rocket power in which the rocket engine disturbs the incremental cycle of the ramjet. Marquardt envisions that the perturbation Does the ramjet engine have a place in the space age? Yes, says Roy Marquardt-the man who rediscovered the ramjet and expanded its principles. "Satellite probes indicate that the atmposphere is higher than we previously thought. Thus, we can make better use of the oxygen through the wider use of ramjets." The advantages? Weight and cost savings. The nuclear powered ramjet, now under re­ search ond feasibility studies as the Air Force sponsored Project Pluto, shows great promise for the future, Marquardt declared. "The objective of the nuclear powered ram­ cycle ramjet could be used in a concept which has ramjet engines as booster power­ plants for space vehicles, instead of large rocket engine first stages. His company holds Air Force contracts to explore the new space propulsion concept, "The nuclear ramjet alone," Marquardt stated, "can carry o larger payload through the atmosphere at less weight and cost than present ballistic missile vehicles. The very nature of the ramjet-a fantasti­ cally simple engine oft described as a "stove­ pipe"-is to carry large payloads for infinite distances at high speed through the atmos­ phere. jet is to achieve better propellant consumption Just this summer Marquardt established a while still in the atmosphere by using the free nuclear systems division to accelerate research oxygen rather than carrying it along in first (Cont. on P. 39) and second stages as present systems do," Marquardt explained. The theoretical savings in weight and cost 9 space journal �a search for the space man's food by R o b e r t G. T i s c h e r HE FIRST MANNED FLIGHTS into Space will T be of short duration, primarily designed to demonstrate successfully that a human opera­ tor can survive the extremes of acceleration, temperature, motion, and confinement, while maintaining his ability to make a sequence of correct decisions which will bring the ship safely back to Earth. Painstakingly detailed study of this first vehicle and its one-man crew will reveal faults in construction of the ship and in the per­ formance of the operator which can be used immediately to improve subsequent trips. Aside from the magnitude of forces involved, this excursion will resemble flights made rou­ tinely in high-performance aircraft now in use. The crewman will be carefully selected, trained, and briefed. He will carry along a sufficient quantity of liquid oxygen to suffice for the projected length of the trip with a safety factor which will be adjusted to the best use of space and weight. A little water will be necessary to replace losses normal to the cabin environment of his Space ship. Food during these first experimental flights will be carried along in small amounts or not at all. If food is included it will be used either for quick stimulation or for its psycho­ logical value, perhaps in combination with drugs, and certainly highly correlated with the personal desires of the crewman. This can be assumed from the fact that studies of nutritional patterns of human subjects under great stress more than suggests that the de­ gree of emphasis on food decreases as the situation becomes more strenuous. Thus the immediate results of increasing the length of an excursion into Space will be to increase in proportion the demand for oxygen, water, and ultimately food. While variety is not a factor in the provision of oxygen and water, it is an important one with food. The simplest diet may suffice for the shorter flights; but, in contrast, longer flights will quickly generate the desire for variety in the menu of the Space man. 10 space journal For journeys of more than a few days, some method of preservation will be used to maintain the food supply in a safe and edible condition for the required length of time. With this in mind, all the common methods of preservation have been suggested and each has its merits. For example, precooked frozen foods would serve best on short and inter­ mediate range flights where low temperatures could be maintained in insulated storage without mechanical refrigeration. If the food supply were loaded into the Space vehicle at -200 ° F., the food itself would provide refrigeration sufficient to allow operation for a few days or even a few weeks -the exact time depending on the effective use of insulation. It is apparent that due pay­ ment must be made for the privilege of carrying foods al this low temperature in terms of a high energy requirement for thaw­ ing prior to use. This might still be an attrac­ tive method if the crewman agrees that the quality of his food is significantly better than that provided by other methods. Also, if cabin cooling is a problem, the food at very low temperatures would act as a heal sink for cabin temperature control. Canned foods are recommended by their rugged stability but, in this case, not by their high water content nor the necessity for heavy metal containers. Dehydrated foods have been suggested for use in Space vehicles with the idea that their low moisture content makes them an especially efficient cargo. If water within the ship is not recycled, the;·e appears to be no advantage of any kind in choosing dehydrated foods as any significant part of the Space crew menu. Since the waler requirement of a man is practically the same whether he drinks his water or takes it in combination with one or another food, the absence of water in his dehydrated food would only dictate the presence of an equiva­ lent amount in liquid form. Result: the net gain in weight conservation would be almost nothing. �The simplest recycling process is designed for the reuse of water through the activity of an ion-exchanger or by means of distillation processes. Operated efficiently this cycle would reduce water requirements to that amount needed by the Space man during the time necessary for recycling a roughly equal amount. With this change, the use of dehy­ drated foods becomes a much more promi­ nent possibility. Apart from this advantage however, the burden of equipment for dehy­ dration of dehydrated foods remains. Closed-cycle feeding of crewmen in Space trips is usually constructed from two important components: a Space crewman and a micro­ biological regeneration system. The Space crewman is usually visualized as a less-than­ average size man weighing between I 00 and 140 pounds. A small man is chosen for the obvious reason that economy of both space and weight are, at least for the present, highly essential in the design and operation of Space craft. Only as soon as fuel-weight ratios are reduced will it be possible to contemplate large Space crews either individually or col­ lectively. The reasons for including a man at all in the Space craft have been critically reviewed by many authors. For our purposes, it is .sufficient to conclude that he is most needed for control, through human judgement, of Space voyage situations which cannot be reli­ ably predicted and therefore cannot be fully mechanized. Also, he weighs less than most computers of roughly equal ability. But he must have daily about 1 ½ pounds of oxygen, five pounds of water, and a pound of food (dry weight). However, in the course of o small number of hours he returns to the system all of the water token in-about five pounds-plus I I ounces (330 grams) of metabolic water. And, too, all of the oxygen is returned as carbon dioxide along with four ounces (125 grams) of carbon dioxide pro• ,One of 40,000 kinds of Algae. Lichens would require less water ... duced from the breakdown of foods. This leaves a remainder of approximately 1 ½ ounces (45 grams) of dry solids which are returned to the system each day. While this gives the overall picture on o short term basis, it is clear that the growth of hair, nails, and skin would hove to be token into account at least in excursions of very long duration. The microbiological regeneration system hos already received many names and many identities, but all descriptions contain o plant which functions to produce oxygen from human wastes. The algae are usually pre­ ferred for this task since they ore, by com­ parison with higher plants, of uncomplicated structure. Essentially, the alga functions en­ tirely photosynthetically while higher plants have roots, stalks, blossoms, bark, and a complicated vascular system which may play no part at all in photosynthesis. This compli­ cation in structure seems, in some way, to be related to their possible use as human food. Observe, for instance, that we eat leaves, roots, stalks, blossoms, and even the bark of some of the higher plants while, with a few exceptions, the algae and other lower green plants are not as often used for food. . . . but would require more area. �The advantage of photosynthetic efficiency of the algae is portly reversed by their re­ quirements for large amounts of water to grow in and their lack of direct acceptability as human food. And it is these attributes which lead the designer of a closed-cycle feeding system to consider any one of a number of combinations of plants and animals to per­ form the combined functions of supplying oxy­ gen, water, and food while existing entirely on a diet of human wastes. The closed-cycle concept is almost invari­ ably applied to long Space excursions which will take months or years. This is the direct result of a host of known and expected in­ efficiencies in the cycling operation. Ulti­ mately, however, we should look forward to a closed-cycle system of high enough effi­ ciency to compete with conventional feeding methods, even during short Space excursions. What might be the requirements of such an idea system? How would it look and how would it function under the stresses of actual Space flight? To house the system we should construct a cabin with a total volume of less than 50 cubic feet. The cabin will hove a cylindrical shape in early models to maximize the effi­ cient use of space in a vehicle of similar design. The cabin will be completely sealed 48 hours prior to launching and rigorously checked and adjusted. Twelve hours later the Space man will be placed in a cabin simulator where the oxygen level built up to 50 percent to match that of the vehicle. Simultaneously the pressure will be reduced to half on atmos­ phere. Then, two hours before launching, the crewman and his immediate gear will be transferred through a pressure-lock to the cabin of the vehicle. Lying prone on a contour bed he will hove in his field of vision all of the instruments and controls with which he will work throughout the trip. He will also be in television contact with control operations informing him of the progress of preparations. Finally the count down will start, the ve­ hicle will rise slowly at first and then the traveler will zoom off into space. After a brief blackout the crewman will regain consciousness and begin monitoring 12 space journal the vehicle's progress. The oxygen he hos consumed will be re­ placed by more supplied by on efficient light-weight bio-converter. This converter should weigh about 40 pounds and be built of light-weight plastic containing a radioactive isotope and a luminescent chemical which causes the inside of the converter tubes to glow brightly. Inside the tubes will be a dark-green mixture containing approximately 50 percent algal cells in water, under two atmospheres of pressure, being circulated very turbulently through the lighted tubes. Al the intake end will be a regulating device which raises or lowers the oxygen output of the system to match the needs of the crewman while he is resting or working. Solid and liquid human wastes will go directly to an incinerator-still combination which will first boil off the water through a condenser and an ion-exchange column lo maintain a constant supply of pure water. The remaining dry substance will be auto­ matically heated to higher temperatures and broken down into carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water-all of which will be fed directly to the bio-converler. Under pressure, the carbon dioxide will dissolve in the converter fluid where it will be reconverted to oxygen. The mineral salts remaining after the destructive distillation of the human wastes will be dissolved in water and metered into the bio-converter to complete the carbon dioxide-mineral salts diet of the oxygen ex­ change algae. At another place in the converter a portion of the converter fluid will be drown off, cooked thoroughly at a high temperature and pressure and partly dewatered. To this concentrate there will be automatically added a minute amount of flavoring material to make the algal soup palatable to the crew­ man. Following a timed schedule, the crewman will take his food and water by a mouth-tube and in measured amounts, changing the fla­ vor but not the texture of his diet at will. The return to Earth will be followed by a debriefing procedure which includes a grad­ ual change from the semi-liquid Space diet to a normal Earth diet. (Continued on 45) �the weightless man b y H e r b e rt 0. S I a I I ng s and Siegfried J. Gerathewohl HE TWENTIETH CENTURY has seen many T outstanding accomplishments. Among these are the development of the automobile, air­ plane, atomic fission, television, and great advances in medical science. We are now on the threshold of still greater challenge­ the conquest of Space. While scientists knew of the future of Space travel and engineers dreamed of interplanetary rocket flight, ii took an eye-opener from behind the Iron Curtain to convince the American public that the time is not too distant when manned Weightlessness-space 8. R;gg bound (above) by lt. Col. Robert vehicles will escape the captive pull of Earth's gravitation and speed info the infinity beyond our world. When this occurs, the Space traveler will be subjected to the most fascinating con­ dition associated with sustained rocket flight: The condition of zero-gravity, in which he will have no feeling of weight_ As everyone knows, weight is the result of the tug of Earth's mass as it constantly pulls us toward its cen­ ter. However, when the rocket ship cruises freely after burnout, it moves along a so­ called Keplerian trajectory in a gravity-free condition. This trajectory is like the orbit of celestial objects such as the Moon or Earth. The speed of the body then creates a cen­ trifugal force which exactly counteracts the pull of gravity. Such a trajectory need not be confined lo the outer reaches of Space- Any craft with sufficient speed can fly through a Keplerian orbit a few miles above Earth where air resistance is low and excessive thrust can be used for overcoming drag. In jet aircraft, zero-gravity has been achieved for a maximum of about 43 seconds. Obviously, before man is to be subjected lo the strange ond startling reality of zero­ gravity for extended periods of lime, research We;ghtlessnes,-eorth bovnd (below) by lt. 8 11;aq Col. Robert �must be conducted to investigate the effects of weightlessness on him in order that he be forewarned and prepared to meet this un­ canny experience. At first glance, it might seem that weightlessness would be a very sim­ ple and pleasant sensation-rather like a relief from the everlasting burden of weight. But this is not necessarily true. On Earth we are never free from weight. Even the swim­ mer, lazily drifting on a pool of water, is subjected to the force of gravity and so are birds in flight. The dream condition of man floating and drifting weightlessly in Space is only a wish fulfillment which in itself recognizes the consciousness of weight. Actual weightlessness can be experienced only when the force of gravity seems to be absent or is balanced by an opposing force. The first case occurs when a Space vehicle and its occupants escape beyond the pull of Earth's gravity and thus loses all weight. The second case occurs when the manned craft is orbiting around our planet: either in a rocket ship while cruising after burnout or in an artificial satellite while orbiting around Earth. In either case the result is a condition which can seriously affect the flier's well-being and his ability to respond and to perform his duties. This alone is reason enough for probing deeper into the effects of weight­ lessness upon man and his chances of sur­ vival during a trip into Outer Space. Many suggestions have been made as to ways of producing zero-gravity and the weightless state associated with it. Since weightlessness can be produced in a free-fall situation, experiments after bail-outs or during jumps into a deep mine shaft hove been pro­ posed. Another method suggested was the use of the elevator, which would produce a stale of subgravity for a period of time. The "Subgrovity Tower" and the "Gravitron" de­ vices for simulating the weightlessness con­ dition by propelling a man up and down in a system of springs or in a U-shoped tube, were proposed and used for experiments in Italy. Moreover, weightlessness was partially simulated by the immersion of a body in water; and other experiments on orienta­ tion and equilibrium functions yielded inter­ esting results. In such experiments the direc­ tions which we call "up" and "down" ceased !o have conventional meaning. 14 s pace journal Another, and perhaps the best, method devised lo produce the weightless stale is the use of jet aircraft. Since men most prob­ ably will never orbit around Earth in an aquarium but will penetrate the atmosphere in gigantic rockets, high-speed jet aircraft flying along a Keplerian trajectory seems to be the logical and most realistic approach to such an experiment. In addition, this type of high-speed aircraft provides a long enough period of zero-gravity to enable the experi­ menter to perform certain tasks and to secure all the measures necessary for his safety. The pilot, on the other hand, needs only to fly the airplane through the weightless maneuver, using experience and skill in order to guide the craft along an ideal parabolic arc. It was not until the early part of 1955 that the United States Air Force's School of Aviation Medicine, located al Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, received a T33 jet plane to be used for zero-gravity research. In the beginning, practically no information was available on how a Keplerian trajectory could be flown other than the experience of sev­ eral pilots who had known short periods of weightlessness during an outside loop or push-over maneuver. There was theory and some expert opinion; but we-that is, myself as pilot and Dr. Gerathewohl as chief inves­ tigator-began a series of exploratory flights to devise a flight profile that would give us the longest and most stable period of virtual weightlessness. Thus, trial and error within the theory of the ballistics of flying objects and artillery shells gave rise to the following flight pattern. At approximately 20,000 feet we nosed the T33 into a dive of approxi­ mately 45 degrees, throttle set at 96 percent engine power. Upon reaching an indicated airspeed of 350 knots, we began a pull-up which produced a radial acceleration of about 3Gs for 3 seconds, allowing the air­ craft to be pulled into a steep climb of ap­ proximately 60 degrees from the horizontal. With wings level, sufficient forward-stick pressure produced a weightless state for approximately 28 seconds. We applied power on the upward portion of the arc and pro­ gressively reduced it at the peak of the curve and during the descending leg; this resulted in a constant velocity and zero-acceleration (Continued on 41 J �Major Stallines, Dr. Stru9hold, and Dr. Gerothewohl di.s• cussing a problem in front of the Air Force plane used in early weightless experimenf.s. throughout the arc. Roll and side sway were practically negligible throughout the maneu­ ver provided aileron and rudder actions were absent and the air was calm. Only minute stick movements were necessary to keep the craft on its path. The T33-parabolic curve was limited by several factors. Structurally, the aircraft was designed for subsonic flight. Because of its low Mach rating, entry speed and break-off points had to be determined so that maximum speed and climbing attitude could be attained without reaching the top of the curve below its stalling speed. The pullout also had to be completed before the plane oversped its Mach limit. Fuel tank configuration produced another disconcerting condition. The T33 has a main fuel cell with the engine fuel pump located at the bottom of the tank. A portion of the top of the tank contains an air or expansion space connected to on overboard vent line. Zero-gravity allowed the fuel to float within this reservoir and permitted air and fuel to change places. Sustained zero-gravity re­ placed the fuel supply by air. The end product of this chain of events was a flame­ out. The acquisition of an F94C Starfire jet air­ craft by the School of Aviation Medicine early in 1956 enabled the experiments in weight­ lessness to continue with a more stable, safer, and longer period. By modifying the flight profile according to the higher thrust of the F94C, the period of virtual weightlessness was extended to 43 seconds. With this new air­ craft we have been able to log an accumula­ tive total of over 37 hours of weightlessness. Many a reader may wonder about the benefit of this expensive and time-consuming type of research. Many may argue about the identity of the kind of weightlessness we pro­ duce, and the kind existing outside of the gravitational field of Earth. And some may still doubt that Space flight will be accom­ plished at all. To us, these objections are as familiar as the gravity-free state itself; and to us, the answers are obvious. Today, only ignorance or prejudice can keep man from realizing that the Space Age has already begun. If people still consider the Sputniks, Explorers, Atlas, and Lunik noth­ ing more than unimportant pieces of metal flying through space, they then do not under­ stand fully the signs of our time. be There will manned satellites in the not-too-distant Dr. Gerathewohl seated in cockpit of plane. �primitive fear: a first approach to the universe by JohnHulley 1\ o one planet is permanently safe. Survival depends upon mobilzty. If we remain isolated 011 this world, our species and all other /ife here will sooner or later be extinguished. If we discover, explore, develop and inhabit other planets, our chances of lasting survival multiply. If our explorations lead beyond this to other solar systems, our fulure approaches !he eternal and our opporlunity for expansion approaches lhe infinite. T WO PRECEDING ARTICLES (SPACE Journal, summer and winter, 1958) linked the fol­ lowing points: 1. An apparently infinite quantity of planets affords opportunity for the profusion of life wherever radiation, planetary com­ position and other foctors ore favorable. 2. While evolution probably proceeds in all favorable opportunities, it may in many cases be interrupted. Changes in radiation, stellar explosions or collisions, cometary, planetary and galactic col­ lisions occur only at long irtervals; but the evolution of life is so slow that cos­ mic events may interrupt or retard it on many planets. 3. The direction of evolution is to fi!I every possible nook and cranny with increas­ ingly adoptable and mobile organisms -populating the seas, then the land and air of the torrid zones and finally of the cooler zones. 4. To toke advantage of all favorable planets, evolution may lead to species copoble of carrying life from planet to planet. That may be the ecological purpose of man. If these propositions ore correct, it follows that we ore integrally involved in the struggle of life to survive and expand amid the oppor­ tunities and dangers of this turbulent Uni­ verse. Appearing ofter millions of years of evolution, man incorporates the results of a long investment process. Upon us depends the survival of the life which hos appeared on Earth. And through species such as ours, life may toke early advantages of all favor• able opportunities among the multitude of planets. 16 space journal �J j At the apex of the evolutionary pyramid, man need fear no rival terrestrial species. Even in the cave era, stone missiles, axes, spears, knives and fire made our ancestors masters of all other animals. But man is not master of the problems of survival in the Universe. Our complex nervous apparatus permits us to recognize and gradually to understand the elemental challenges of nature in the cosmos. With this recognition comes the need to respond. The struggle to survive is essential in the life process. To survive, little fish must flee big ones, and rabbits must outrun foxes. Nearly all large species are subject to man. But man has the opportunities and dangers of the Universe to cope with. Awe of the cosmic environment may be traced back to the earliest historic times and perhaps to the prehistoric period. It is ex­ pressed in most of the world's leading reli­ gions, and in some of the more profound philosophies. How our ancestors first became aware of the Universe around us, and how they reacted, is the subject of this article. In the earliest times, our palaeolithic fore­ bears seem to have given limited attention to the larger environment. The undifferen­ tiated forces of nature provided general, un- predictable sources both of supply and of danger. The only thing men distinguished in detail was the animal prey on which they depended for survival. The hundreds of paintings and other artifacts which have been recovered from that period nearly all depict large mammals-mammoths, bison, giant deer, lions, rhinos and others. They showed no concern with background-no plants, rivers, mountains or skies. Primary focus on prey may be a natural heritage from earlier forms of life; while the nervous structures of the more complex ani­ mals permit them to distinguish the environ­ ment in fine detail, these probably apply their powers almost exclusively lo the identification of edible things and other immediate interests. The first men seem lo have begun with a similarly narrow range of attention. Even though they were not analyzed in detail, environmental forces certainly provided cause for concern. Storms, floods, hurricanes and tornadoes were presumably as frequent then as they are today. Solar eclipses, comets and other celestial events may have added to the uncertainties. Our forebears lacked precise means to cope with dangers only dimly discerned. However there are indications of a generalized response to these challenges. Human reactions to vital concerns may be traced in the relics of religious activities. For ecological purposes, they contain the best evidence of the hopes and fears of early communities. Symbolic acts preceded writing by many millennia; indeed, men appear to have practiced rituals before the full develop• ment of speech. The first two rituals centered on human life; they concerned birth and death. Perhaps a hundred millennia ago, Neanderthal men pro­ vided their dead with comfortable and warm surroundings, implements and joints of meal. While these men had a cranial capacity simi­ lar to our own, the attachments for their tongue muscles indicate that they spoke but haltingly; the rites were probably visual sym­ bols, the meaning of which became more articulate in later times. Twenty to fifty millennia ago, our Cro­ Magnon ancestors began to make figurines of 17 space journal �pregnant women; the few other sketches of human figures also emphasized generative powers. Rites of birth and of the after-life have been practiced by a majority of societies. While their intensity and elaboration have varied considerably, they are the oldest and commonest in human experience on Earth. To interpret them is to try to understand the ideas our predecessors were acting out. Anthropologists have theorized that birth and death are extremely disturbing to the continuum of community life and require ritual to ease the adjustment. The problem is then to understand why these processes should be so disturbing. The succession of individuals is nature's method of promoting the growth, evo­ lution, variety and expansion of organic life. Other animal communities adapt to individual births and deaths in the most practical manner, Extraordinary human reactions may reflect a profound concern with a problem which men could not exactly express and which they earnestly desired to solve. Welcoming birth and denying death may be symbolic ways of saying: At the mercy of farces not now fully understood, we intend to live forever. Births and deaths are the mast readily identified processes in the rejuvenation of the com­ munity. Attention to them may reveal a mix­ ture of anxiety for survival and hope far future fulfilment. So far as the evidence goes, these symbols had only the vaguest context. Conceptions of the future were isolated thoughts, simple in form and general in location. As other rites were gradually added, they revealed a widening of human awareness, from the vague beginnings up to the time of a specific and primary concern with the heavens. Men began to practice hunting rites toward the end of the palaeolithic era, perhaps twenty millennia ago. They drew, painted and carved images of their prey; in them they implanted spears and arrows. These rituals suggest that big game was becoming difficult to find and catch. They apparently expressed human desire to survive, and perplexity as to why the supply of large mammals was giving out. In the next phase, roughly ten millennia 18 space journal ago, men worshipped images of small mam­ mals, fish, large birds, and the like. These rites were associated with a conversion to the pursuit of small game, following the extinction of larger species. They suggest that the lesser prey were also becoming scarce in relation to growing human populations. Scattered tribes have maintained a mar­ ginal existence, relying on totemistic rites of small game, until the present day. However, about eight millennia ago, leading groups began to shift to rituals concerning the fertility of land. Men developed forming, and far the first time entered into an operational rela­ tionship with some of the more elemental forces of the environment. They devised intricate rituals concerned with food production. Fledgling farmers recognized that good crops resulted from the interaction of Earth, Sun, rain and rivers with the seed. But they did not understand why these forces were undependable. They com­ pared the seeming vagaries of nature to the caprices of human beings and personalized them. Through imitative ceremonies and with offerings of choice food, drink, homes (shrines), songs and other attentions, they sought to influence the elements. Another agricultural ritual concerned a deity who died and was resurrected annually. This rite may have reflected recognition that fer­ tility is influenced by some other factor, which men could not easily identify: after repeated plantingsof identical seed, the depleted top­ soil no longer produced the same rich crops. Rites to cope with such fertility problems are still practiced in many parts of the world today. At about the same time, our ancestors be­ gan to worship male cattle. In developing the husbandry of animals, men probably learned that some species will mate in cap­ tivity, while other will not; some live, while others sicken and die. Human dependence on the increase of livestock may account far the worship of the most reliable breeders, especially the bull and the ram. Farming communities could support priest specialists solely concerned with efforts to bring about favorable conditions. Individual farmers too had idle lime to ponder. Thus men began to segregate the conglomerate (Continued on 46) �space and the law by While technology is striving to make the conquest of Space a splendid reality, our sense of normative order has promoted ex­ tensive discussions as to the legal implications of our leap into the cosmos. So lively have the deliberations of lawyers become, they in­ duce an eminent scholar, Myres S. McDougal, to observe wryly: "The conquest of Space has barely begun. Yet the law of Space, instead of lagging behind as some lawyers fear, is threatening to outfly the attraction of the Earth's gravity." To be sure, "the law of Space" has yet to come. At present it is largely confined to theory and speculation motivated by a sense of urgency rarely demonstrated by interna­ tional jurists. Why our venture into Space should fill distinguished lawyers with a feeling that the legal determination of the status of Space is so pressing a problem is indeed a question worth examining. Since the launching of Sputnik I, the power struggle raging on the surface of our planet is threatening to expand into our cosmic en­ vironment on the heels of scientific progress. As out of date as it may sound, we are pre­ sented with the ominous prospect of Space becoming an arena for political conflicts filled with dangers of unprecedented dimensions. Comparably with the discovery of the lethol capabilities of nuclear energy, the conquest of Space may present mankind with the fate­ ful choice between tremendous progress on one hand, and its obliteration from the face of Earth on the other. The romanticists among us might shudder at the idea of the Moon be­ coming an object of controversy between nations, but such a prospect is indeed conceiv- Menachem Sheffy able, with possible consequences far removed from the realm of abstract discussion. To forestall these dangers, voices have been raised demanding an early international agreement on the status of Space, barring its exploitation for warlike purposes. Whatever rights states may claim in Space, it is impera­ tive that its use be restricted to peaceful aims. Surely we cannot afford to be merely legalistic in so vital a matter; whatever sovereignty is asserted in Space, it must be subjected to this qualification. In spite of international agreement, does the law of nations in its present form provide us with answers relevant to Space? Some lawyers advance the proposition that the first Space law doctrine has already been laid down by the practice of states. They argue that the fact that no single slate has protested against the orbiting of satellites over its ter­ ritory constitutes tacit agreement to the prin­ ciple that Space may not be made an object of national acquisition. The validity of such a deduction is indeed questionable. We can­ not ignore the fact that the Sputniks and Ex­ plorers launched thus far are national enter­ prises undertaken under the IGY program, and states may interpret their tacit agreement as of a nature limited to activities under this program. Furthermore, though the origin of doctrines of international law is possible in this manner, it is far more profitable, in an area as important as Space, to have a positive and ex­ press agreement on the subject. The lack of explicit law regarding Space suggests a turn to analogies. Two areas of international law readily lend themselves to analogy: namely, the law of the air and the 19 space journal �law of the sea. We should, however, bear in of the Federation of American Scientists ex­ mind that analogies serve only as indications pressed similar sentiments, saying that "it of possible legal solutions without, in them­ selves, determining the law. The latest restatement of the status of the air is embodied in the Convention on Inter­ national Civil Aviation of 1944 {the Chicago Convention). Article 1 of this Convention reads: " ...every state has complete and ex­ clusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory." We have no definition of the term "airspace" or any indication as lo where it ends and Space "proper" begins. By no measure of interpretation may we say that this article applies to Space as well. That the framers of the convention did not have Space in mind when using the term "airspace" is a fact attested to by the eminent historian of air law, John C. Cooper, who served as chairman of the committee that drafted this article. The consensus of opinion is that "air­ space" is the area in which aircraft fly. We can hardly consider movement in Space as flying, nor is a spacecraft the equivalent of an aircraft. While it is commonly accepted that the Chicago convention does not apply to Space, it remains to be seen whether we can draw an analogy from the status of "airspace" for the purpose of determining the status of Space. Should Space above states be con­ sidered part and parcel of the notional do­ main, then sovereignty would extend upwards indefinitely. The difficulties inherent in such a concept of the notional domain ore practically insurmountable. For one thing, the rotation of our planet places, al various times, differ­ ent portions of Space over a given territory. For another, it would be impossible to deter­ mine borders in Space and decide when a violation of "notional Space" occurs. The status of the high seas offers a more workable analogy. The high seas, for ex­ ample, are open to oil nations with no single state legally entitled to proprietary rights be­ yond its territorial waters. This concept is 20 would be tragic if the challenging task of Space exploration were carried on in the competitive nationalistic pattern under which it hos begun." Those objecting to the concept of Space devoid of national control argue that security considerations necessitate that states hove exclusive jurisdiction in Space above their territory. It is pointed out that Space may be used for military aims even during peace time for such purposes as reconnaissance and the monitoring of radio communications.We hove noted the physical difficulties in exercising such jurisdiction. Furthermore, whether al­ leged security considerations outweigh the advantages to be derived from a free and internationally controlled Space is highly ques­ tionable. Should arguments in the name of notional security be motive for the determina­ tion of the legal status of Space, why should we not apply it first to the high seas? It is submitted that the high seas infested with missile-firing vessels pose as real a threat lo the territories of notions as Space. Admitted­ ly, the status of the high seas was established long before the introduction of modern missiles and it would be difficult to reverse time-tested, customary low. All in all, the argument that free Space may become a menace to states only underscores the demand that its free status should exclude its use for military ends. The destructive capability of today's weap­ ons makes it imperative that Space be on area of peaceful activities. Freedom of Space must also be freedom from fear of on attack from Space or its abuse. Accordingly, any international agreement on the status of Space should include a pledge by all notions to this effect. Professor Cooper, in on attempt to com­ promise the two extreme views of open and restricted Space, suggests the adoption of concepts of territorial sea and contiguous zones in determining the status of Space. steadily gaining ground in the deliberations These suggestions amount to a vertical divi­ concerning the status of Space. The secretary sion of Space whereby, above a certain height, general of the United Nations voiced a popu­ it would be open to the vehicles of all notions. lar opinion when advocating last Moy that An intermediate zone would assume a status outer Space be accorded the same status as similar to that of the territorial waters with that of the high seas and that notions re­ the right of "innocent passage" used freely. nounce any claims to it. The National Council (Continued on 47) space journal �at I as missile The Tr eap on System-The Atlas (SM-65) is America's first intercontinental ballistic missile. With associated ground equipment it com­ prises the Air Force weapon system WS l07A­ l. The missile hos been developed in a flight­ lest program that began in mid-19 57. It is in production at Son Diego by Convoir (Astro­ nautics) Division, General Dynamics Corpora­ tion. Atlas was the first missile lo lift itself into orbit without extra rocket stages, and is being used in a number of pioneer space projects. The ltissile-The liver Atlas is designed to de­ a thermonuclear warhead 6,000 statute more miles (5,500 nautical than miles). It is powered by liquid propellant rockets­ two large boosters, one large sustainer and o pair of small "vernier" rockets. All burn liquid oxygen and RP-1, a kerosene-like hydrocar­ bon. Takeoff thrust is approximately 360,000 pounds. Takeoff weight is about 260,000 pounds. The missile is 75 feet long and l0 feet in diameter. Some flight versions with a pointed nose are 8 2 feel long. The unique Atlas propellant tank is mode of tough, lightweight stainless steel, thinner than a dime. The tonk, measuring about 60 feet in length, has no internal framework. It is kepi under pressure to retain its shape. This results in a tremendous weight saving. A special cold-rolled austenitic steel (AISI grade 301) was perfected for the Atlas, and Convair worked with the welding industry to develop new welding techniques and equipment for fabrication. Skin gages vary throughout the structure, being tailored to meet local stresses. The heaviest gage is less than 40-thousandths of an inch. The thinnest wall section meets a specification for minimum tensile strength of 200,000 pounds per square inch. The missile contains more than 40,000 parts (not counting subsystems supplied by associ­ ate contractors-engines, nose cone, guid­ ance, etc.) In o unique staging version originated by Convair, all five rockets are ignited prior to launching. After a few minutes of flight, dur­ ing which the missile is lifted well into its trajectory, the booster engines and associated A HAS ST ARTS LONG TRIP-Pouring a torrent of lire f rom itt th ree ro cket engines, on Atlas ;ntercontinentol ballistic mjuile rises from its launch pod at the Air For ce Mit.sile T est Center of Cope Conove rol, Flo. Photo shows lho ,tori of the ,ucceuful Righi of Aug. 2. �equipment are jettisoned ta lighten the load. The sustainer engine continues to accelerate the missile until it has attained a velocity on the order of 16,000 statute miles per hour. Then the sustainer is shut off, and the small vernier rockets are used (if needed) to "trim" velocity to the exact value required. After vernier shutdown, when the missile is following a purely ballistic (unguided) course, the nose cone is separated from the rocket structure by firing small retarding or "retro" rackets. Nose cane and lankage trav­ el in a high arc through outer space until the atmosphere is re-entered. Then the tank struc­ ture is destroyed by frictional heating. (Conventional long-range missiles consist of two or more rockets, one mounted on another. The bottom or booster rocket furnishes all power until ii burns out. Then it is dropped and the next stage is ignited. The Atlas system, with its unique "one and one-half" staging, differs from the other modern missiles in hav­ ing two sets of engines but only one fuel tank structure. This permits igniting all engines, including the upper-stage (sustainer) engine, on the ground. There is no risk that the missile will abort through failure ta achieve ignition of a second stage many miles in the air. This achieves a remarkable improvement in missile reliability. The "one and one-half" principle was first advocated by Canvair in a report to the Air Farce in May 1949.) During powered flight the course and speed of Atlas ore governed by the guidance system. The missile employs radio-inertial guidance (requiring a station on the ground) through the period of early operational use, then changes to all-inertial (self-contained) guid­ ance. Using self-contained guidance, the mis­ siles con be fired in a single salvo, instead of being launched in series. Flight Testing-Flight missiles are shipped from the factory to the Atlantic Missile Range, Cope Conoverol, Fla., where Convair main­ tains a field staff of more than 1,000 persons. Here Convair, as agent of the Air Farce, puts each missile through ground testing, final checkout and test flight. During a flight, data from more than 150 instrumented points in the missile is teleme­ tered (radioed) back to AMR over nearly 50 channels. This information-recorded on some l O miles of magnetic tape--includes tempera­ tures, vibrations, accelerations, liquid flow rates, etc. From this information, engineers can reconstruct an Atlas flight in detail. Flights to Date-Atlas flight testing started at Cape Canaveral in June 1957, using Series A missiles fitted with booster engines only and having dummy nose cones. The range for these flights was limited to approximately 600 miles. In eight such flights, the missile never foiled to launch smoothly and retain complete stability during vertical rise. On the first two flights (June 11 and Sept. 25, 1957) the missiles malfunctioned ofter starting pitchover into trajectory and were destroyed by the range safety officer. Success­ ful flights followed Dec. 17 and Jan. l 0. Testing of the complete missile, having botfl sustainer engine and separable nose cone, started in the summer of 1958. A control sys­ tem "random failure"• caused the first three­ engine Series 8 Atlas to break up in flight July 19. The second was launched successfully an Aug. 2, attaining a range of more than 2,500 miles. Successful longer-range flights followed Aug. 28 and Sept. 14, and a full­ range flight of well over 6,000 statute miles was made Nov. 28. Missile l 0-8 was fired into orbit Dec. 18. The first Series C Atlas was launched Dec. 23. Series D testing started in the spring of 1959, and the first fully success­ ful flight was made June 20. Ground Testing-Atlas missiles assigned to ground testing are sent to two California facilities, Sycamore Canyon, near San Diego, and the Missile Static Test Site (formerly Ed­ wards Rocket Base), to be expended in o rigorous and exhaustive program of captive testing. llistory-The Air Force in 1946 awarded Convair the first research and development contract in a program to develop a missile capable of carrying a warhead 5,000 miles. (At that time the only long-range rocket was the 200-mile German V-2.) Convair designers under Karel J. Bossart (later technical director of Astronautics)• con­ ceived and developed the MX-774 research A rondom failure is comporoble to having o flat tire on a modern automobile. One expect, to make hun• dreds of trips without tire trouble-but there is always the possibility of having a flol on the next trip out. Bouort was awarded the Exceptional Civilian Service Award by Air Force Secy. Jome, H. Douglas in 1958. �rocket. This introduced three innovotions which have since become part of the universal art of rocketry: 1. First swiveling of engines for directional control. (The Germans controlled the V-2 with rudderlike graphite vanes placed in the jet stream.) 2. First "integral" tonks-the skin of the missile serving also as the wall of the propellant tonks, thus ochieving a tre­ mendous weight saving. (The Germans used separate internal tonks.) 3. First separable nose cone. (The Ger­ mans re-entered the complete rocket structure.)•• Defense Deportment economy cutbacks in 1947 led to shelving of ICBM development, but unexpended and supplementary MX-774 funds enabled Convoir to complete 3 of the 10 MX-774 's under construction, conduct the first coptive firing in November 1947, and launch the completed rockets at White Sands Proving Ground in 1948. From then until early 1951, the company continued limited ICBM studies with its own funds. The Air Force renewed ICBM work on a conservative scale in January 1951, giving Convoir a study and development contract. The program was named "Atlas" that foll. By 1953 Convoir hod developed essentially the present Atlas design-pressurized stain­ less steel tonks, one and one-half staging, vernier trim rockets, gimboling engines, radio­ inertial guidance, etc.-ond construction of the first test tonk started that winter. In this original version, the Atlas was to be equipped with five main engines developing takeoff thrust of more than 600,000 pounds. North American Aviation, which hod worked on Atlas propulsion as a subcontractor, was mode a full associate contractor of the Air Force in 1954. Over the years there hove been other major Convoir innovations. Two that should be noted: Tracking-A unique electronic tr.::icking / guidance .syslem was conceived by Convoir in 1946, in connection with MX•774; when missile work stopped 1 the Air Force continued supped of this development, called the Az.uso system. It become the range frocking system ot Cope Canaveral, now used on all missiles launched there. Verniers-When powered Aight ends, ballistic mis• siles must hove the exact velocity required for' a given trajectory. Convoir evolved This is the Atloi interconfinenfol ballistic missile pto• pulsion system, generating 360,000 pounds of thrust. In lon9•ran9e flight tests, this engine hos hurled the Atlas ovor 6325 miles lrom the launching pod ot Cope Conovetol, Florido. Mode by Rodcetdyne, a division of North American Aviation, Inc., the primary units ore composed of o twin-chambered booster at left and right, o su.rtoiner in the center, shown here being inspected by Al Smith, Rodcetdyne Field Service representative. The propulsion iystem alto includes two small vernier, or slobilizing engines, mounted on the miuile frame lo pre• vent roll. During 1954, successful testing of small nuclear devices (Operation Castle) led the Air Force to accelerate the ICBM program. The present Air Force Ballistic Missile Division was created to manage it. Atlas was re­ designed to the present three-engine config­ uration by December, and Convoir received a production contract in January 1955. Atlas fabrication began in Son Diego in 1955. First engine tests were conducted at Edwards in June 19 56; the first completed missiles were delivered to Sycamore and Cope Canaveral that foll. A ssocitaes-As systems integrator for Proj­ ect Atlas, Convoir builds the airframe, the autopilot system and various components; assembles and checks out the missiles; con­ ducts both captive and flight tests for the Air Force; activates new Atlas bases under direc­ tion of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, and trains Air Force personnel. Associate contractors, in addition to Rocket­ dyne, include General Electric Company and the Burroughs Corporation, radio-inertial guidance (to be followed by American Bosch Arma Corporation, all-inertial guidance); and General Electric Company and Avco, nose cones. Research and development phases of Proj- the tech• niques now in general use: After shutdown of main engines, smoll accessory rockets ("vo:enicrs") are employed for precise adjustment of velocity. 23 space journal �eel Atlas have been directed since mid-1954 by the Ballistic Missile Division, ARDC, Ingle­ wood, Calif., now commanded by Maj. Gen. Osmond J. Ritland. Al Cape Canaveral, Can­ vair launching complexes and assembly checkout buildings are part of the Atlantic Missile Range, ARDC, commanded by Maj. Gen. Donald N. Yates, with headquarters at nearby Patrick Air Force Base. looking Ahead-The Atlas is achieving op­ erational capability in 1959. The operational force will be part of the Strategic Air Com­ mand, commanded by Gen. Thomas S. Power. SAC's 1st Ballistic Missile Division, commanded by Maj. Gen. David Wade, has headquarters at Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc, Colif., a combined operational and training bose. The first SAC-launched Atlas was fired from Vandenberg by the 576th Strategic Missile Squadron on Sept. 9, 1959. Work is well advanced on two of the three complexes planned for Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, Cheyenne, Wyo. Other Atlas bases will be situated at Offutt AFB, Omaha, Neb.; Fairchild AFB, Spokane, Wash.; Forbes AFB, Topeka, Kan.; Schilling AFB, Salina, Kan., and Lincoln AFB, Lincoln, Neb. Canvair is assisting the Air Force in the installation of training facilities at Sheppard AFB, Texas, and Chanute AFB, Ill. Atlas squadrons al Vandenberg, Warren and Fairchild are as­ signed lo the 15th Air Force (March AFB, Calif.); those in Kansas and Nebraska, to the 2nd Air Force (Barksdale AFB, La.). Each squadron will have 10 missiles. Convair is responsible to AFBMD for es­ tablishing technical criteria for Atlas com­ plexes, for integrating the installation of ground support equipment, for checking out complexes, and for activating them and turn­ ing them over ta the Air Force in operational condition. The company began training Air Force operational instructors at San Diego in June 1958. As the first extensively tested ICBM, and the first lo launch itself into orbit, Atlas has become the sturdy wheelhorse of the Early Space Age. Missions announced lo date, and now under way, include: 1. To boost the first U.S. manned capsule into orbit. (This is Project Mercury.) 2. To boost an instrumented probe into 24 space journal I A TlAS IN TOWER-The huge Alla, inte,continentol bollistk missile u shown here in o test ttond ot the Air force Miuile T est Center in Florida, The missile stands or toll os o seven•story building Thh view shows on Atlos of AFMTC b e fore the succ euful launching ol Aug. 2. Work platforms hove b een folded up to permit with• drowal of the mobile steel gantry tower. space. (This is Atlas-Able 4, one of the Air Force "Able" shots, combining Atlas with three upper stages.) 3. To boos! the first heavy satellites into polar orbit. (Projects Midas and Samos.) 4. To boost the first '·medium energy" t'e• hicles into high orbit. (This is Vega, com­ bining the ICBM with a Convair-built second stage, and a storable propellant third stage. Early missions are expected to include scientific earth satellites, moon probes and planetary probes; later missions may include two-man space capsules, television surveys of the moon, and lunar satellites.) 5. To boost 1he first '•!,igh energy"' t'ehicles into distant orbits. (This is Atlas-Centaur, combining the ICBM with Canvair-built second stage, the latter having the first liquid hydrogen rockets. A storable propellant third stage, as in Vega, can be added when necessary. Initial capa­ bilities will include soft-landing a half­ tan payload an the moon.) �ATLAS ON LAUNCH PAO-Towering some 75 /eel cbove the elevated launch platform, on Atlas intercon tinentol ballistic mi.ssile is readied for test Right ot Cope Conoverol, Flo The mo.uiv• steel se rvice tow e r hos been ._,ithdrown from ,he pod. The sfende, gooseneck boom carrying power ond insfrument lines to lhe nose cone swings owoy shortly before launch ' t ::,ince 1952- Convoir begon spoce studies in 1952. The first report on satellite capabili­ ties of the Atlas was published as a classified document in Moy 1953. That foll Convoir pro­ posed use of the Atlas to place a TV-equipped military reconnaissance sotelite in polar orbit. Space studies continued under the leadership of Krofft A. Ehricke, who joined Convoir in 1954. In 1957, ofter Russia's launching of the first satellite stirred strong U.S. interest in space, Convoir was able to present o compre­ hensive satellite and space development pro­ gram to government agencies. (One recom­ mendation was for development of on upper­ stage rocket powered with liquid hydrogen. Such a program is now under way in Project Centaur.) Talking Satellite-In a project sponsored by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, Atlas Missile l 0-8 was launched into orbit from Cope Canaveral al 6:02 p.m. Dec. 18, 1958. Fewer than l 00 persons knew of the project until President Eisenhower announced two hours later that Atlas was circling the earth. The 122-pound payload, installed by the Army Signal Corps, consisted largely of du­ plicate communications relay equipment, de­ signed to tape-record radioed voice or code messages and rebroadcast them upon com­ mand from the ground. The first words brood­ cost from space were: "This is the President of the United Stoles speaking. Through the marvels of scientific advance, my voice is coming to you from a satellite circling in outer space. My mes­ sage is a simple one. Through this unique means I convey to you and to all mankind America's wish for peace on earth and good will toward men everywhere." Successful experiments continued for the life of the batteries, through December. The satellite is believed to hove re-enterd the atmosphere and burned on Jon. 21. Key data (all miles statute) included: Take­ off weight approximately 245,000 lb.; booster package jettisoned normally; sustainer shut­ down after some 4 ½ min. of flight, when velocity was 25,394 ft, per sec. (17,314 mph) relative to earth's surface. Initial estimates of satellite weight (8,700 to 8,800 lb.) were refined to "not more than 8,661 lb." ofter detailed analysis. (The weight of residual pro­ pellants cannot be determined precisely.) Or­ bital data: initial perigee 110.6 mi., apogee 911 mi., period l 01 min., inclination 32.3 . Project llercur) Initiated by the Notional Aeronautics and Space Administration in Oc­ tober 19 58, this is a program to put the first U.S. manned capsule in orbit-"on orm­ stretching, mind-stretching undertaking that thrills everyone of us," Administrator T. Keith Glennon hos said. The capsule, ta be boosted into orbit by the Series D Atlas, is under development by Mc­ Donnell Aircraft Corp. Roughly conical in shape, it is approximately 7 feet across the base and l O feel high. A boom carrying emergency escape rockets is fitted atop the capsule during launching but is jettisoned once the capsule is sofely in orbit. A special couch­ like seat will support the pilot during takeoff acceleration and again at re-entry (when the capsule will come into the atmosphere bose­ first). Launched from the Atlantic Missile Range, the capsule will circle the earth at on altitude of l 00 to 150 miles, for up to 24 hours, be­ fore descent is initiated by firing retarding rockets. After the vehicle has been slowed by aerodynamic drag, parachutes will lower it ta the surface, and a fleet of recovery ships will rendezvous to pick it out of the water. An extensive test program, including experi­ mental launchings with smaller rockets, is 25 space journal �planned during 1959. The first "Big Joe" flight was mode with on Atlas Sept. 9. Mean­ time, a team of seven Air Force, Navy and Morine volunteers is receiving "the most ex­ tensive course of training ever offered to a party of prospective explorers." One flier will be picked to make the trip just before the first manned launch. The capsule flights will lead eventually lo establishment of a permanent manned satel­ lite, NASA hod said. Project Vega-A multi-stage rocket, Vega will be the first U.S. space vehicle in the "medium energy" class-capable of putting a 5,800-lb. weather satellite in orbit 300 miles above the earth. Vega can be used as a two­ or three-stage vehicle as required. This pro­ gram is directed by NASA. The first two stages will comist of the Series D Atlas topped by another Convair-built ve­ hicle. Jet Propulsion laboratory, operated un­ der "contract to NASA by California Institute of Technology, will supply a third stage and will have technical direction of the Vega pro­ gram. The second stage will be powered by a modified version of the General Electric Com­ pany's Vanguard power plant (liquid oxygen and kerosene), developing a thrust of 35,000 pounds. Modifications made by GE will include development of a system permitting the en­ gine to be stopped and restarted in space, so that a precise orbit can be established at high altitudes. The third stage will be powered by a 6,000pound-thrust storable-propellant engine, now under development by JPL. In the three-stage configuration, NASA Administrator Glennon has said, Vega will have the potential to put a 7 40-pound ex­ perimental communication relay into the 22,000-mile or "24-hour" orbit. At this altitude, the speed of a satellite fired eastward along the equator just matches the rotation of the earth; the orbiting body ap­ pears to remain stationary in the sky. Using such satellites as radio or TV relay points, the U.S. could conduct worldwide com­ mercial and military communication, or beam television programs abroad. (It hos been esti­ mated that U.S. overseas messages will climb from the l.5 million of 1950 to 3 million by 26 space journal ORBITAL ATLAS BEGINS HISTORICAL FLIGHT-An Air Force Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile rises from a lounch;ng pod at the Cope Canaveral, Flo., Atlantic Missile Range, to begin o journey that covered millions of milet through space. Th,'s was Atlas JOB, placed into orbit Dec. 18, 1958, the only rocket in the Free World capable of propelling and guiding itself into a satellite path around the earth. The entire 82.foot missile, minus its ;ettisoned booster engine pockoge, remoined in orbit 33½ days, to become tho largest satellite launched by any western pounds of nation. thrust from lifted by 360,000 engine.s, the Atlas approximately its five rocket hod achieved ifs @orth•circling ellipse approximately 4½ minvte,.s after this photo wos token. II mode 500 revolv• lions before re-entering the otmo.sphere ond burning up on Jon. 21, 1959. 1960; and if facilities ore available, to some 20 million by 1970.) NASA hos contracted with Convoir for eight Vega flight vehicles and one engineering eval­ uation vehicle, at a cost of $33,500,000 (not including the Atlas boosters or the GE en­ gines. The boosters will be procured out of Air Force-allotted missiles.) Project Centaur-The first U.S. space ve­ hicle in the "high energy" class, Centaur will be capable initially of putting heavy (4 ½ -ton) �ARTIST'S CONCEPTION OF ATLAS IN ORBIT-The Alla, inforconlinontol bolli,Hc missile launched into orbtt December 18, 1958, is shown high obovo tho earth in this drawing by on orlist ol the Convoir Division o( General Dynamics Corporation, builders ol the Atlas The 82-loot missile, produced of Son Diego, Colil., by Convoir-Artronoulic11 i1 the only roclcet in the western world capable ol propetling itseJI into orbit around t,',e earth. At lelt, still attached to tho missile, ;, one ol the three main engines which power the Alla,. Two oddi­ llonol "booster· engine, were dropped at a lower altitude. payloads into satellite orbit, or sending large instrumented probes deep into space. Centaur will employ the Atlas as booster and a Convair-built upper stage of Atlas-type construction, powered by the first U.S. liquid hydrogen engines. If needed, the Vega third stage can be added for additional capability. Contracts originally were awarded Convair and Pratt & Whitney Aircraft (a pioneer in liquid hydrogen propulsion) by the USAF Air Research and Development Command, as agent for the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Centaur program was transferred from ARPA to NASA on July l, 1959. Krafft A. Ehricke, the noted space authority, is director of Convair's work on the Vega and Centaur programs. Both programs rely heavily on Atlas tech­ nology, with resultant savings. In each case, the Atlas booster is being modified by build- ing a tank of uniform l 0-foot diameter (in­ stead of tapering the forward end, as is done in the ballistic missile). Matching second stag­ es are built of thin-gage stainless steel with Atlas tooling and welding equipment. New or modified Atlas complexes at Cape Canaveral will be used for launching both spacecraft. Projects Vidas, Samos-These are military satellite projects employing the Atlas booster and a Lockheed Aircraft upper stage powered by the Bell Aircraft "Hustler" engine. Both programs are sponsored by ARPA and direct­ ed by AFBMD. Lockheed is principal contrac­ tor, and Convair is responsible for conducting launchings from Atlas-type complexes. Midas is a program to develop an early­ warning system against enemy ballistic mis­ sile attacks. It is based on the use of satellites carrying infra-red sensors, to detect ICBM's immediately after launching. Sames (formerly 27 space journal �HORIZON SCANNER ROLL ETS Rl. r<< ROCl\lTs--- ATLAS "D" MERCURY ATLAS ABLE ... ATLAS-CENTAUR Sentry} is an advanced satellite reconnais­ programs of the 1960's, will provide thrusts sance system. on the order of 1 to 1 .5 million pounds. Atlas-Able 4--Atlas will serve as booster These include Saturn, a cluster of Atlas­ of this four-stage rocket, to be fired into space type Rocketdyne engines, now under develop­ from Cape Canaveral. This is another in the ment for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency; series of Air Force "Able" shots, which are and a 1.5-million-pound single chamber en­ gine, also a Rocketdyne product (to be clus­ directed by AFBMD for NASA. The second stage rocket is Aerojet liquid propellant (fuming nitric acid and UDMHI; third stage, Allegany Ballistics Laboratory (spin-stabilized solid propellant, same as Van­ guard third stage); and fourth stage, a Space tered in a super-booster known as Herax}. Centaur has been picked by the Advanced Research Projects Agency to serve as third (payload) stage of the Saturn vehicle. Space Electro11ics-Convair's Azusa rocket Technology laboratories vehicle having ver­ tracking system, used for all ballistic missiles nier control plus injection rocket. STL is pro­ launched gram manager and associate contractor to phase-comparison AFBMD. Convair is responsible for the booster positioning missiles with an accuracy of one­ and its adapter section and for conducting tenth of a foot at distances of 300 miles. the launching. Future Application-The next generation of space boosters, to come into use in NASA 28 , VEGA ATLAS-DISCOVERER space journal from Cape Canaveral, techniques for employs correctly The system can be designed for handling deep-space communications at distances up to 200 million miles. �new products high speed computer elements Ultra-high-speed, radically advanced elec­ tronic computer elements so fast that they con perform 10 million computer operations in the time it tokes to soy their name were announced here today by Aeronutronic, a Division of Ford Motor Company. Known as BIAX, the new Aeronutronic computer elements ore expected to become the principal components in the next genera­ tion of electronic computers-and result in foster, cheaper and much smaller computing equipment. The new BIAX units ore small rectangular bars of ferrite magnetic material so tiny that more than 310,000 will fit into a quart milk carton. More than 5,000 can be held in the palm of your hand. MINUTENESS OF BIAX ;s shown in this photo ol several hundred o( lhe new computer elements with o nickel. More thon S,000 can be hold in tho polm of your hand, and 310,000 will Rt in o qvort milk carton 8IAX is now in moss production, ond complete BIAX memory systems and computers ore now being morJcefed for special commercial and military applications. BIAX con operate at a wide temperature range-from 260 Fahrenheit, or more than 50 degrees hotter than the boiling point of water, to Arctic temperatures well below the freezing point of water-in carrying out A TYPICAL 8/AX ARRAY for on oloctronic d;gitol com­ puter memory unit, this printed circuit cord contains more than 300 8IAX elements. Multiples of such p,;nted ultra-high-speed computing operations at mil­ circuit cords, containing 8IAX, or• mounted adjacent to one onother in o computer Jo prov;de large memory lionths of a second. copobility. BIAX computing equipment will result in much lower cost computers, because the tiny, relatively inexpensive elements will replace expensive semiconductor devices such as transistors and diodes. Two configurations of BIAX hove been de­ veloped and ore now being produced by moss production techniques. One is a "mem­ ory" element, and the other is a logic, or ureasoning 11 device. Minuteness of the BIAX elements and their favorable environmental characteristics will make possible extremely small computer pack­ aging, which is highly important in the space age. BIAX elements con be used in a number of types of computing equipment, for both military and commercial applications. In­ cluded among these will be missile and satel­ lite installations, language translation, library 29 sp ace journal �cast optical silicon THIS ENLARGED microscopic photogroph of a BIAX memory element shows details of wiring ;n the tiny, radically-advanced new computer component developed by Aeronutronic, a Divi.1ion of Ford Motor Company, Newport Beach, California. searching, de-coding, ond scientific computation such as calculating flight trajectories for missiles ond rockets. In the forthcoming human-space experi­ ments, BIAX elements will permit scientists to track "man in space" capsules with real-time calculations, and thereby determine the pre­ cise location of the space explorer at the exact time he is there. BIAX elements hove a low electricol conductivity, and are not affec­ ted by radiotion-making them highly effec­ tive for missile and space vehicle applications. The BIAX concept and associated BIAX computer components were invented by Crav­ ens L. Wanlass, director of research for Aeronutronic"s Computer Operations, and ore the result of a number of years of intensive study. Complete BIAX memory systems ond com­ puters ore now being marketed for speciol commercial and military applications. Aeronutronic, formerly a subsidiary of Ford Motor Company, became a Division of Ford on July 1, 1959. Since its formation, Aeronu­ tronic has hod as its objective the develop­ ment and monufocture of advanced products for military and commercial purposes in the areas of weapon and space systems, missile range systems and instrumentation, advanced electronics, data processing systems and com­ puters. 30 sp ace journal Hughes Aircraft Company metallurgists have perfected a method of casting optical-quality silicon for use in infrared sensors in military weapons systems, Raymond B. Parkhurst, vice president, reported here today. The new process permits volume production of silicon lenses, domes and flats. Until re­ cently it was necessary to "grow" individual crystals for each optical element which, in turn, hod to be laboriously machined before use. Parkhurst reported that molds are designed to the approximate shape of the finished port and the costings given a final finishing on standard optical machinery. By holding cost­ ings to close tolerances, metal waste and finishing time is kept to a minimum. "Designers con now specify silicon optics without worrying whether or not the necessary material would be available in quantity," Parkhurst said. "Using cost optics, manufac­ turers can pion on production rates equal to those of other optical manufacturing process." Hughes engineers disclosed that there is no severe size limitation on elements that can be made. Infrared domes with an outside diame­ ter of more than eight inches already hove been cost successfully. Two major difficulties faced the Hughes researchers in developing the process. First was the need for a refractory material that would withstand the high temperature and solvent action of the molten silicon. The Hughes laboratories investigated a number of different compounds and materials before finding a suitable one. Methods also hod to be developed for melting the silicon under inert atmospheres, and pouring the metal into the mold. Fortunately the refractory material selected allowed the molds to be used again and again, lowering the cost of the process and making it more adoptable to mass pro­ duction. The second problem related to the optics of the cost port. Earlier it hod been generally assumed that polycrystalline silicon, such as any costing process produces, would display opticol qualities drastically different from those of single-crystal optics. But this has not proved the case. In test ofter test, no signifi- �cant difference has been detected in the be­ havior of infrared rays as they pass through sections of the two materials. Physical tests indicate that the cost metal has exactly the same density as single-crystal silicon, showing that it is free of voids that would interfere on a random basis with the optical qualities. for corrosion resistance fail. 3. coatings which can be applied to non­ metals such as glass and ceramics. 4. deposition temperatures can range from 700 F to 1700 ° F depending on the substrate material. 5. the process offers excellent throwing power permitting coating of complex shapes. vapor coating Successful modification and improvement of a long-known process for vapor phase dep­ osition of chromium, molybdenum and tung­ sten to produce adherent coatings of the metals on various substrate materials has been announced here by Alloyd Research Cor­ poration. Potential applications, utilizing chromium as a protective corrosion-resistant cladding, ap­ pear in the chemical, dairy and food indus­ tries as a low-cost substitute for stainless steel in valves, tubing and other equipment. Promising electronic industry applications include coatings of certain components with high purity, high density tungsten to prevent contominants in the base materials from ad­ versely affecting the electronic emission char­ acteristics. According to the company, by producing thicker "coatings" the possibility exists for fabricating thin electronic parts of refractory metals in this manner. Heavy coat­ ing of tungsten on graphite also appears possible for missile and rocket nozzles. Qualitative bend tests of chromium coolings up to 0.005 inch thickness on copper and steel show no indication of crocking, spoiling or flaking ofter extensive deformation. The some thickness of chromium deposited on copper gave complete protection to the base metal when immersed in a 20 per cent nitric acid solution during a test period of 64 hours. Compared with electroplated chromium, the Alloyd Research coating is nonporous, less brittle and does not risk hydrogen embrittle­ ment of the substrate. Other advantages of the process include: 1. coatings of uniform thickness. 2. coatings that may be used at tempera­ ° tures well above 300 F where plastic coatings The Alloyd Research process is on out­ growth of o research and development pro­ gram aimed at volume production of very high purity metals. Recently developed and improved chemical compounds of chromium, molybdenum and tungsten are credited in part for the success achieved. The company emphasizes, however, that the process is in the developmental pilot plant stage and is quoting interested organizations on this basis. power transistor for military use The production of a new military-type germanium power transistor, designated 2N297A, has been announced by the Bendix Aviation Corporation. The rugged unit, which meets the military specification MIL-T-19500/36A (SigC), is the first of its type to be placed in production by the company, according to Dr. Robert R. Meijer, manager of semiconductor marketing of the Red Bank division. It can be used in numerous military applica­ tions, such as in missiles and supersonic air­ craft, and also in many commercial fields for high-current switching, audio amplification, regulators, power supply circuits, and oscilla­ tor circuits. The 2N297A has a maximum collector volt­ age roting of 60 volts, and a maximum col­ lector current rating of 5 amperes. It hos o dissipation of 35 watts at 25 degrees C. and 10 waits at 7 5 degrees C. 31 space journal �meteorites THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR OF BOEING-WESTINGHOUSE TEAM A solar powered thermoelectric generator for topping the energy of the sun is pictured being put through its paces on the roof of a Boeing Company building this week in Seattle. Developed jointly by Westinghouse engineer Niles F. Schuh (left) and Boeing engineer Ralph Tallent (sighting through telescope ot the sun), the generator con convert the energy of the sun into 2 .5 watts of power---enough to power a radio transmitter for out in space. The model was demonstrated at the summer meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Boeing and Westinghouse said the generator may hove application in long-mis­ sion satellites and manned space vehicles of the future. The concave, highly polished re­ flector, which resembles a "fun house" mirror, collects the sun's energy and concentrates it on a portion of the cylinder shaped generator in front of the reflector. -Boeing Airplane Company Photo 32 space journal CAPSULE AND ITS CARGO The first view of the McDONNELL SPACE CAPSULE mockup to be released publicly shows a pilot preparing to climb through the entrance hatch of the manned satellite being built for the Notional Aeronautics and Space Administration. This picture token at the Mc­ Donnel Aircraft plant in St. Louis provides o good view of the retro-rockets (lower left) and the flotation bogs which give the capsule bouyoncy and stability in water. SHELTERED LAUNCH-Proving a jet fighter con toke off from a shelter designed to with­ stand on atomic blast, on Air Research and Development Command F- 1 00 Super Sabre completes a Zero Length Launch (ZEL) at Holloman AFB, New Mexico. North Ameri­ can Aviation Test Pilot Al Blackburn, Los Angeles, Calif., was at the controls. �'SPARK BOMB'-A flash of man-made lightning triggers an underwater explosion that bulges an aluminum tube with 6,000-horse­ power force! In this demonstration of explo­ sive forming of metal at Republic Aviation Corporation (Tues. Sept. l) the experimental device sets off the explosion by passing elec­ tricity through the water, converting the result­ ing shock wave into the force required to form metals. Adolph Kastelowitz (shown watching the blast), director of manufacturing research for the company, said it is working on devel­ opment of a machine tool that would utilize this technique to form such space-age metals as steel and titanium alloys. Such a tool, he said, would be less expensive and consider­ ably smaller than conventional hydraulic presses now used for this work. AEROJET DESIGNING GIANT ROCKET TEST STAND Shown above is an artist's conception of Aerojet's giant six-million-pound-thrust rocket test stand. It is comparable in size and scope to the one presently being designed by the Aerojet-General Corporation's Facilities Engineering Division for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The stand will be constructed at Edwards Air Force Bose and used for testing the NASA 1,500,000-pound-thrust liquid rock­ et engine. This concrete and steel test facility, believed to be the most powerful in the free world, will be capable of holding a cluster of four of these engines while they are being fired simultaneously. ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ION TEST-Prototype ion thrust device, developed by Rocketdyne, a division of North American Aviation, Inc., produces ion beam during test run in vacuum tank which simulates outer space conditions. Thrust system, in which ions are created and accelerated to high velocities, is visible at left. The photo­ graph was taken through a port in the top of the vacuum tank. An ion engine delivering only a fraction of a pound of thrust could propel space vehicles on interplanetary voyages. 33 space journal �reaction -------, 7. More technical information. Dear Editor, Although Space Journal is a young mag­ azine, I feel that my letter is old or late, or both. Your publication is filling a basic need, that is supplying the latest information on rockets and space travel to those who hove a need for such information. The biggest prob­ 8. More detailed articles on the problems of space travel and development. I hope my suggestions will help. Letterkenny Ordnance Depot Electronics Branch Guided Missile Section William Hough lem is lo create enthusiasm and interest in the This con be accom­ Chambersburg, Penn. plished by having the magazine available to Your suggestions can do nothing but help, Mr. Hough. What our missile pro­ gram needs is a thousand more William Houghs'. We hope the copies of Space Journal will help. Thanks for letting us help you. Editor magazine to the readers. those most closely affected by space. Where I'm employed there ore a respectable number of us employed in rebuilding rackets, but I con count on my fingers those who ore genuinely interested in rackets and racket development. I think its a crime that this situation exists, particularly because of the terrific waste of tax money due lo this disinterest, but the free­ loaders and goldbricks sure do put an a good show. Astronautics is such a fascinating field that this condition just doesn't make sense. The following is a suggestion as to how you may help rectify this situation. A few months ago I took a few copies of Space Journal along to work. Some of the men began to show some interest. My suggestion is for you to donate to our section a copy of Space Journal, perhaps for a year. A magazine such as yours coming to us with the compliments of the editor will make the men feel just a little more proud to be in the missile program. The following are a few ideas I'd like to see in Space Journal. 1. A list of books available on Astronautics and the Sciences. 2. Diagrams on propulsion systems and air­ frames. 3. Articles on components (Regulators, Gyros, Relief Valves, etc.) 4. Job availability for missilemen. 5. Technical information of foreign rockets. 6. Running course in Astronomy and pro­ pulsion units. 34 space journal Dear Editor, If the articles I have been reading in the newspapers are for the most part correct, and we are behind the Russians as much as five years, I have a question that may not be to your liking. What are you so complacent about? Your last editorial was a milksop!! You hove yet to take a stand on any vital issue. You either don't believe that the United Stoles missile lag is dangerous, or you don't care! I will do you a favor if you will do me one. I will continue to read Space Journal if you will put some editorial guts in what is other­ wise a fine publication. If toes in Washington need stepping on, then let them have it. There must be some member of your staff who is not afraid to call a spade a spade. I have spent most of my life in the federal service, and am presently at Vandenburg Air Force Base. If I will risk my neck for you, is it too much to ask that you quit hiding behind the metric system. Vanderburg A F B (name withheld) Lt. Col. USAF We have no defense, but will try to improve with age. Thank you for a frank letter. Editor. �free information Editors note: Information will be ,upplied on any of the items listed below. Write to Editor, SPACE Journal, 316 Howerton, Nashville, Tennessee. PIC Design Corporation, a subsidiary af Benrus Watch Campany, Inc., is offering, upon request, copies of their new, 416-Page Master Catalog No. 20a. This catalog has been printed on special custom-made "Bible-leaf" paper to reduce valuable file and drawing board space. Con­ solidating all previous catalogs and supple• ments, the new catalog lists over 10,000 items, including gears, shafts, collars, cou­ plings, speed reducers, differentials and other precision items available from STOCK. In addition to detailed drawings, complete specifkations and prices, the new catalog contains separate Technical Data, Breadboard Kit and Precision Tool Components Section. A new 19S9 Catalog of Aviation & Technical books is available free-of-charge from Aero Publishers. Described in this 36-page catalog are books of all publishers, including the Govern­ ment Printing Office, on Jets, Rockets, Mis­ siles, Space Travel, Engineering, Piloting, Aviation History, Maintenance & Production, Electronics, Flight Operations, logbooks, Mathematics, Model Building, Nuclear Energy, Meteorology, Navigation, and just about any­ thing else pertaining to aeronautics and its allied industries. Some navigation computers and other pilot supplies are also listed. The United States Air Force has contracted with Callery Chemical Company, Pitts­ burgh, Pa., to supply HiCal, a boron-based high-energy fuel, for a classified military proj­ ect. Delivery of the fuel will begin immediately from the firm's Lawrence, Kansas, plant. The entire production of the plant has, until now, been utilized by the Navy. The plant went onstream last fall. Callery hos also announced that HiCal will soon be available to aircraft, missile, and rocket manufacturers for evaluation in engines and components. HiCal can be shipped under ICC regulations in specially-designed cylinders. Information on handling the fuel is avail­ able. The Research Chemicals Division of Nu­ clear Corporation of America now has available a revised price list of the rare earth oxides and salts used in varied research for military and institutional purposes. Dr. Eugene V. Kleber, who heads the Division, noted that the prices of a number of the purified rare earths are greatly reduced. Successful development in the laboratory of a new vacuum "plating" process which will deposit a tightly-adherent, decorative and cor­ rosion-resistant coating of pure aluminum on a wide range of base metals from high tensile and mild steels to aluminum die casting alloys has been announced by the research division of National Research Corporation. The ductile, non -porous coatings may be anodized to provide excellent wear resistance as well as attractive coloring in a full spectrum of metallic pastel and dark shades. Potentially large-volume applications ap­ pear in several industries such as the automo• tive field for both exterior and interior bright or colored trim and in household appliance manufacture for decorative purposes. Other potential applications include aircraft and missile parts and marine hardware. Aircraft interest in corrrosion-resistant aluminum coatings stems in large part from the fact that most previously employed organic and metallic protective coatings will not with­ stand temperatures above 500 ° F and are frequently subject to chemical attack from some fuels and insulating materials. A large airplane manufacturer has tested NRC aluminum coatings for periods up to 1,400 hours in 20 per cent salt spray and salt fog without failure. Laboratory tests indicate hydrogen embrittlement of high tensile steels encountered in conventional electroplating of aircraft and missile components for corrosion protection is eliminated in the vaccum coating process. Preliminary estimates for vacuum plating show that process costs on a commercial scale should be competitive with conventional electroplating for a number of applications. Additional information available. 35 sp ace journal �The Impact of Air Power. Edited by Eugene M. Emme. Von Nostrand. 914 pages. $12.50. This book is intended to be a comprehen­ sive and annotated volume of readings from a wide range of informed sources. Although the era of air power is still in its infancy as far as time is concerned (a scant fifty years), yet never in such a period of time has the course of history past and to come been altered so completely. This book attempts to make clear the prob­ lems created by air power as an instrument of national policy and by its influence upon national security. Although most of the book was compiled before Sputnik I, the thesis of the volume is well confirmed. Air power has been mode more complex by the rise of ICBM's, but the prominence of air power is no more tied to any one type of air power than sea power is tied to sails. Air space and outer space ore a single and indivisible medium. The book is divided into three parts. brief account of the ports would show: A Port I-The Nature of Air Power-which includes ( l) The Evolution of Air Power, (2) The New Mobility. Port II-The Revolution in Warfare-which includes--( 1) Classical Theories of Air Warfare, and (2) World War II, (3) lessons of WWII, (4) Small Wars and (5) Future Wars. Part 111--(1) Soviet Air Power, (2) American Air Policy, (3) Air Power in Europe and Asia, and (4) Astronautics. High Altitude and Satellite Rocl,ets. A sym­ posium. 136 pages. Philosophical library. $ 15. This volume is a collection of the papers presented at a symposium sponsored by the 36 space journal books Royal Aeronautical Society, The British Inter­ planetary Society and the College of Aeronau­ tics held at Cranfield, England, 18th-20th July 1957. Presented before the Russians launched their first satellite, the twelve papers are of interest because of the nature of the problems they deal with in detail. Ranging from pro­ pulsion problems of high altitude rockets, recovery after re-entry, high temperature materials, instrumentation, telemetry and guidance and some of the advanced technical problems to the very human problem of what to do with man in space and how to keep him olive. Realities of Space Travel. Selected Papers of the British Interplanetary Society. Ed. By L. J. Carter. 431 pages. McGraw-Hill. $7.50. Especially noteworthy is the section of this book that is devoted to the research being done on the "weight condition" man will un­ dergo when he rockets into pure space. The papers cover methods of air purification, the use of algae for food and atmosphere control, and haw the length of time projected for the individual trip will affect and control the food requirements of the space traveler. The book also covers in detail other aspects of astronautics-aerodynamic braking, escape velocity, testing of rocket performance, cosmic rays, limiting factors of chemical rockets, and others. The engineering problems are discussed in concise and simple terms. The data in the book will be of interest to the scientist, engineer, or researcher interested in this field. Nuclear Rocket Propulsion. By R. W. Bussard and R. D. Delauer. 375 pages. McGraw-Hill. $10. This book presents to the engineering man a sound basis for understanding the engineer­ ing problems of mobile reactor systems, prob­ lems that cover such areas as heat genera- �lion and removal, fluid distribution, and flow and structural integrity of the rocket itself. The authors' presentation is primarily descriptive: the fundamentals in each area are given without extensive mathematical proofs, but realis­ tic physical bases are provided for all analyses. The book surveys the fuel elements, modera­ tors, control elements, and structural materials of rocket reactors in the light of how they affect and control the type of material used in the nuclear reactor. Some of the materials discussed are graphite, tungsten, molybede­ num, tantalum, niobium, rhenium, and the re­ fractory borides, among others for their po­ tential use for high-temperature-reactor fuel elements. As a source of information about the funda­ mentals, Nuclear Rocket Propulsion is very timely in this rapidly growing field. The Prediction of Ballistic Missile Trajectories from Radar Observations. By Irwin I Shapiro. 208 pages. McGraw-Hill. $7.00 This book develops methods, based on the statistical theory of parameter estimation, that can be used to determine ballistic missile trajectories. With very slight modifications, the methods can also be used to determine the osculating porameters of satellite orbits. The information upon which the estimates are based is obtained from observations of the missile by monostatic radars located at one or more sites. The method given prime consideration is the method of maximum likelihood. Several different procedures, appropriate for different practical situations, are described which can be used to find explicitly the maxi­ mum likelihood parameter estimates. An extension analysis of the random errors associated with predictions based on the maximum likelihood method is also given. Such an error analysis provides a good ap­ proximation to the maximum predication ac• curacy obtainable for systems containing monostatic radars. Several chapters cover the changes in the predictions methods necessary to account for the earth's oblateness. The appendix include: Iterative Solutions to the Kepler Equation and An Error Analysis of Milne's Method. Heres a lull scientific report on space flight-its past present . . . and future! SPACE FLICHT Satellites, Spaceships, Space Stations and Space Travel Bv CARSBIE C. ADAMS President, National Research and Development Corporation, Atlanta , Georgia NOW-the exciting and factual account of what is involved in space Right -and how our scientists and engineers are bringing us into this new era-is given by ex­ perts. Front ma n's earliest skyward thoughts to today's ACTUAL pla.no for flight in space . . . the men, discoveries, and technoloiocal advances respo nsible are now broui,:ht before you In a striking review. The treatment ls soundly technical, ful ly annotated, and tasclchlng concepts and the growth r l gr g;:r: re�ui!fi��� ttJ:f the ways In which the many ot Here 1• an Integrated picture llelds that lend their knowledge to astronautics are working toget her to make space night a reality. You learn about the contributio n s made by: gf :ei� -cstroph,sics -c:... u"'uaicoti.,H ---9tophysiu -9sycholo11 Or. Wernher von Braun says r 1 h b efg;�• �!rf�fn �g�t �t !!1B the stature or on e ot the tew at hl f�� r:;:,':;°';!�c �reJ i ut��t��tlnft the theories thoroughl y covers methods, equipment, and plvota ! scientific and human ractors­ ror everyone with either a tunc­ tlonal or general In terest In any aspect ot the developmen t or practical space tllght. --mattri■l1 --.pat• me4icln■ -c:htmi.stry --oncl ■ther fie14s ;{t!fr: :Jen-da y Gxami11alio11 ----, r------- ----------· I I I I I I I I I McGraw-Hill Book Co., 327 W. 41st St., N.Y.C., Dept. SJ-59•2 Bend me A.duns' SPACE FIJOHT tor lO d•J'I' uamhatton tn ap­ PNUl. In 10 dan I w1ll remit $6• .SO, plua, fe'lf cent.a deU'l'trJ, or return book Poltoatd. (Wt Pl1 delhery 1f yeu rem.it with tllia coUl)()n--tame return prh't1ece,.) For prieu outalde U.S.• write Mc0uw-R1ll lnt'l.. X. Y. 1'ame Addru1 Citr Zone Staie .. SJ--J I I I I I I I I L •-------------------------� 37 space journal �space focus Move of ABMA from Army to NASA­ President Eisenhower. "The contem­ plated transfer provides new opportunity for them (ABMA to contribute their special capabilities directly to the expanding civilian space program." Werner Von Braun, Technical Di­ rector, Army Ballistics Missile Agency,"the President has decided that it is in the best interest of the country that our work be continued within the framework of the National Aeronautics and Space Admin­ istration. Since NASA's establishment a year ago, we have worked harmoniously with that fine organization. We look forward to a continuation of our efforts with NASA in a progressive space program which will make this nation second to none." Major General John B. Medaris," I am both pleased and relieved by the President's decision. It will stabilize the situation and the mission of the great development organization I have had the honor to command since its activation Feb. 1,1956." On Polaris MissileAdmiral James Russell,Vice chief of Naval Operations," despite all the miliary value one finds in the POLARIS submarine system, I would not advocate having it as the only retaliatory system. A single system can be met with a single countermeasure, and al­ though the countermeasure against the POLARIS is not now evident,in considera­ tion of it we should have some variety in our retaliatory locker." On sustaining man in space-DR. RUSSELL 0. BOWMAN,CHANCE VOUGHT space medi­ cine man, is conducting experiments to find out how man can breathe and eat while on space trips. Answer: Algae prob­ ably. Two white mice lived in sealed jar-algae provided the mice with oxygen, mice sustained plant with carbon dioxide. Food pellets was thriving diet for the mice. 38 space journal On motivation for public support of space programs-" Scientific curiosity, the basic human urge to investigate the unknown, the lure of outer space as a limitless scene for high adventure ...offer only flimsy basis for the sort of large-scale collective enterprise that a space exploration must be," asserts DR. SIMON RAMO. "The promoter of a particular space project ... had better be prepared to argue pretty cogently that his project will yield the public either some impressive military advantage or else some economic return that out­ weighs the cost. Group survival, or else comfort and convenience, are the substan­ tial group motivations he must enlist in sup­ port of his personal enthusiasms ... The program must appear to do so, and the facts must on the average fit that appear­ ance." On timetable for man on the moon-Present technology with adequate support can put man on the moon between 1980 and 1985, according to the timetable of Y. C. LEE, AEROJET-GENERAL spaceman.First step will be made this year as the X-15 goes out 100 miles for reasonable length of time to explore environmental effects.Then,man can go into orbit (2 20-300 miles out) for a couple of times via Project Mercury in about two years to determine reactions on sustained flight. Then: 1965-70, man in orbit for indefinite time with capability of return; 1970, instrumented orbit into real space, 20,000 miles or more to study influ­ ence of moon's gravity. 1980-orbit man around the moon for first hand observation and provide return capability or space plat­ form.Then, man will be ready to make his first landing. On life on other planets-Discovery of life on other planets would be one of the most momentous events of human history and next to synthesis of living matter in a laboratory, the most important step that �could be mode toward an understanding of the problem of the origin of life, ac­ cording to DR. ALBERT ROACH HIBBS of CALTECH'S JET PROPULSION LAB. "Tele­ scopic observations show large scale chemi­ cal processes involving carbon are taking place on terrestrial planets," he revealed ... Other possible origins of life on other planets: Panspermia-the scattering of life­ bearing seeds through space so that they fall on planets and germinate where condi­ tions are favorable. Spontaneous Gener­ ation-al the molecular level. Unmanned vehicles to Mars can radio back informa­ tion on the chemical constituents of life there. Marquardt-(cont. from p. 9) and feasibility studies on Air Force Project Pluto,in conjunction with the Lawrence Radia­ tion Laboratory of the University of California. Morquardt is sure that further studies will show that a nuclear ramjet can carry a larger payload through the atmosphere at less weight and cost and without the shielding problems inherent in other systems. While Marquardt holds a virtual monopoly on ramjet development and production, his company's interests extend deeper into more advanced, sophisticated propulsion systems. "Yes, we're working on electrical propul­ sion research," Marquardt declared. "Our ASTRO-Air-Space Travel Research division­ actually is studying many propulsion systems for space vehicles and carrying out research projects dealing with aerothermodynamics, magnetohydrodynamics,combustion,fuels and propellant combinations." In discussing electrical propulsion, Mar­ quardt pointed out that the principal actually isn't new. "The cathode ray tube in a television set is an ion accelerating device," he explained. The big problem in space propulsion: "We have to figure out how to generate the electri­ cal outlet in a system to get the power to accelerate the choice particles. You need an electro magnetic field to harness the ions." But it's not insurmountable.Marquardt pre­ dicts electrical auxiliary power will be ready in a few years. "The military application will come the See the Stars, Moon, Planets Close Up! 3" ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELESCOPE 41/A'' ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE! UP TO 270 POWER! Vlith this scope you can see everytbin1r a■ above but. with ii-reater l)Ower vlus will aplit finer atara. :Mirror has twice the light gathering Power. Mirror guaranteed to l(lve theoretical limit of resolution. Rack and pinion focU8insr, hardwood tripod, real equatorial mountin�n)y one 11-djustment followa stars I Aluminum tube. 6 power finder tele,cope. 2 standard siz.e eyeniec:es and mounted Barlow lens give you powen of 40X, 90X, 120X, and 270X. Low-cost accessory eyepiece available for biirber power.. FREE with Soope:-Valuable STAR CHART plua 272 page "HANDBOOK OF HEAVENS"' pl111 ..HOW TO CSE YOUR TELESCOPE" BOOK. Shipping weight 25 lbs. Stock No. 85,006-HB . ... .. . . . ..... $74.50 f.o.b. Same Telescope as Stoclt No. 85-094-HI) above but equipped with Electric Clock Drive­ $111.50 F.0.B. Bani.n�on, N. J. W• monufo<lur• the .Soltllite Teltscopes used ot Moonwotch S1ation1 throug:hour America. Order by Stock No.-Stnd Cheer.: or M.0.-Sotisfoction or money bock! WRITE FOR FREE GIANT CATALOG-HO Over 1000 Optical Bargains We are Astronomical Telescope headquarter-a I 128 page cat&• log , howa huge 1ele<::tion o( Micr(ltJ(:OJ)e', Brnocu1drl5, _ Satt"lhte Scopes, Solar Furnaces. Infrared Sniµerscopes, Telescope Cameru, Camera Holder attachments. Masrni­ fien, Lenses, Prisms, etc., optical parts and accel"l'-OriP1:1. EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO., BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY soonest," he slated. "In a few years,we will be able to provide electrical propulsion for course correction and orientation of reconnais­ sance satellites.The military is going to have to pinpoint the satellites in the right direction." Primary electrical propulsion will come much later he feels. Primary propulsion for true space flight will come after we develop space platforms. Theorizes Marquardt: "Electrically powered space ships probably will have to take off from space platforms. We must launch them -the space ships-from space." "A very small amount of thrust is very efficient in outer space," he noted. "Electrical propulsion will provide an infinitesimal thrust for infinite times from such platforms." Roy Marquardt,now just in his early forties, is an acknowledged leader in the development of non-conventional propulsion. He founded 39 space journal �the Marquardt Corporation al the ripe young age of 26 to put his ramjet propulsion con­ cepts lo work. His interest in ramjets was sparked in 1942 when, as engineer in charge of naval research at Northrop Aircraft, Inc., he was assigned a research program to delve into methods of cooling engines mounted within the wings of on airplane. Two years later he accepted an appoint­ ment as director of aeronautical research al the University of Southern California lo pursue the ramjet development concepts which the Navy was sponsoring in a program for a subsonic ramjet al USC. Marquardt organized his own company to provide the development and manufacturing requirements for that program. In his 20 years in aerospace pursuits-half his life-Roy Marquardt is credited with mul­ tiple achievements in the field of supersonic propulsion which led lo the development of the supersonic ramjet as a production power­ plant for the Air Force air defense Bomarc interceptor missiles. He took both his Bachelor and Master of Science degrees in aeronautical engineering at famed California Institute of Technology. During his graduate work, he held a teaching fellowship, giving him a rounded academic, engineering, business background rare in one individual. Roy Morquordt's interest in air and space technology began, however, long before he entered Cal Tech. Nearest he con remember he was about nine when he look his first flyer in the world above-in a small scale. Inspired-as were many youngsters-by the era of the heroic, historic flight of Lindbergh in the first trons­ Atla�tic solo-young Roy turned to building model airplanes-avidly. So great was his enthusiasm that he soon flamed the spark for the hobby in many of his school friends. And in so doing he created his first business venture. His hometown of Burlington, Iowa, was just too small to provide the supplies for so sophis­ ticated a hobby as model airplane building. Roy and his friends were faced with a 100mile journey to get their supplies. With the ingenuity that was to spark his 40 space journal coree1, Roy set up a model ports depot at the YMCA, stocking kits in a locker and selling them over the counter. He expanded by or­ ganizing classes in model airplane building­ thus creating an even greater market by initia­ ting more novices. Thus, out of his appreciable profits, he supported his own hobby. In the step by step chronology of moving ahead in successive steps, Roy turned to glid­ ing by forming a club and building a glider with his friends. A Model A Ford towed the glider lo the then fantastic speed of 50 mph. And Roy logged 40 flights. "This early business background hos been a great help," he noted. "I was keeping books by the time I was 1 2 lo show what people owed me, and I developed a healthy respect for the business side of any venture." However, his model airplane trophies which he keeps in his collection are obviously still his greatest point of pride. Thus, in his earliest years-Roy Marquordt's destiny was forming. Today he is aiming his company's efforts higher and higher, just as he did his own in boyhood. With his eyes focused on space, he is building his company to toke port in the great adventure possible. In addition to strengthen­ ing his firm's capabilities to meet space tech­ nology demands head on, he expanded it still further lost year by acquiring the Cooper Development Corporation as a wholly owned subsidiary. Cooper provides the knowhow in solid rocket development to complement Mor­ quardt's own capabilities. The subsidiary ployed a prominent role in the International Geophysical Year by provid­ ing rockets and components for high altitude weather and atmospheric soundings, studies of solar phenomena, particulate samplings and final stages of propelling satellites into orbit. The subsidiary is now into the second phase of Project Sun Flare. It is boosting 50-lb. pay­ loads in 17 60 pound Nike Asp rockets to further study of solar phenomena under the direction of the Naval Research Laboratory. The ASP vehicles ore Cooper developed. Today, the Marquardt Corporation stands out as a leader in the exciting field of space technology. The credit goes to its founder. �HY10THfTICAI. HIGH MACH NO RAMJET nANSl'OIIT Roy Marquardt hos come a long way from sounds like a man who knows where from the air-struck youngster who built powered air­ he speaks as he affirmatively concluded: "The ramjet is not through by a long way. It's full potential is yet to be realized." plane models. But every step he hos token since he was nine years old hos led him to his present eminence and prepared him for the many contributions he is yet to make. Joining his collection of childhood honors ore the citations to a engineer­ businessmon. He was named the "Outstanding Engineer of 1958" by the Son Fernando Volley Chapter of the California Society of Professional Engineers and this summer was saluted by the Los Angeles Chamber of Com­ merce on the 15th anniversary of his company. He is a Fellow and former vice president of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences, a Fellow of the American Rocket Society. He also is a member of the Society of Automotive Engineers, American Ordnance Society, Amer­ ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, Ameri­ can Helicopter Society and the Young Presi­ dent's Organization. Brainy, friendly and articulate, Roy Mor­ quordt's eyes ore on the future as he guides his company into the space age. And he ♦ ♦ ♦ weightless man future, Space platforms circling and surveilling the surface of Earth, and even lunar bases. And there will be the weightless man floating through interplanetary Space. Let us imagine, now, that you ore a pas­ senger on one of these Space ships. With­ out getting too deeply involved in physics, you may ask what happens when you find yourself, soy, practically outside of the gravi­ tational field of Earth. You ore weightless, but does this mean that you ore also free of any pull of gravitation? Of course not, be­ cause the gravitational force of the Sun and other stars is still acting on your body, accel­ erating you along on orbit akin lo that of a celestial body. This condition may be thought of as a free foll through Space, with no other forces felt than those within your own organ­ ism, moving in a curving path that eventually 41 space journal �ends in the center of the mass or masses that attract you. There is no difference between the biological effects of weightlessness en­ countered in this mode of travel and the one experienced in a parabolic flight within Earth's atmosphere. let us continue to imagine you ore in a Space ship going to the Moon. First of all, the various propelling, cooling, and cycling systems must be so constructed that they con function properly in zero-gravity. That is, no free-foll or weight factors will adversely effect any portion of the equipment. We have hod some unfortunate experiences in our zero­ gravity flights: after a few seconds of weight­ lessness, both fuel and oil pressure went bock to zero. Mechanical pressurization of the fuel tonk and a closed lubrication system will be necessary to remedy this disconcerting situation. Furthermore, the Space ship de­ signer must know how various materials be­ hove under gravity-free conditions: gases do not rise; for instance, there is no exchange due to differences in specific gravity, but dust and all unsecured solid objects may float and settle everywhere; and liquids tend lo assume spherical shapes. These factors hove serious effects upon many o conventional instrument and apparatus design. Naturally, all things in the Space ship must be held in place, and this goes for the trav­ eller, too. Without a restraining harness you will float out of your seat upon o healthy sneeze. Since you already lost your feel of being supported, the harness should be of the full-bodied type, even covering your lop and pressing you gently in your seat by means of elastic strings. If you should inflate your pressure suit while you ore not secured in your choir, it will give you a false feeling of support and propel you upward so that you bump against the overhead. This then leaves no doubt-even if you ore floating freely in the cabin-about which is up and which is down. There hardly exists the need for a special means for orientation other than adequate lighting inside of the ship. Since visual reference is the most valuable means of orientation in zero-gravity, the eye functions must be maintained under all cir­ cumstances, particularly during the weightless 42 space journal condition. However, as long as the eye func­ tions properly, the loss of the gravitational direction is not alarming, for the interior of the Space ship should be so constructed that the seals, head rests, table tops, floor and ceiling of the cabin, etc., will always indicate the directions up and down, as do the respec­ tive parts of our body. This directional ar­ rangement, though valid only relative to the vehicle, will still be convenient and practical, for it sustains that frame of reference to which man on Earth is accustomed. For this reason everything within the ship will be as familiar, simple, and functional as possible. There will be beds, washrooms, recreation facilities, and provisions for nutrition and elimination. From this vehicle, an improved version of the mod­ ern airliner or submarine, you will hove a new look at the old world: you will see Earth as one of the stars. This weightless flight to the Moon is not just another creation of fiction and fantasy. It is based on our own experience during the many parabolic flights which, a few years ago, were thought to be impossible and as fanciful as flight into outer Space. But we flew, worked, ate, drank, and tried the means for human comfort in the gravity-free state our­ selves; and we now translate our experience into common terms, and project it into a realistic future. As a result of our experiments we know that care must be token for the well-being and safety of the passenger. The seats prob­ ably will be of the reclining type, adjustable in position and angle, and easily converted into o bed. Hammocks are impractical in a Space ship, because they would tend to float at every move you make, and they may start swinging rythmicolly with the beat of your snoring. The sleeping bog with a zipper on top, attached to your choir, will hold you down very softly at night, and may prevent wild dreams and feelings of terror, which could be otherwise brought about by the un­ conscious sensation of lost support. As o matter of foci, your sleep may even be sounder in the weightless state than under normal conditions, since your posture of rest is naturally associated with a shift in weight distribution in your body and its main points of support. �If you wish for breakfast in the morning, the Space stewardess will simply push the tray over to you. It then drifts through the air as though passed by a ghost servant. It is made of plexiglass and shaped like a box in order to hold its contents together. Inside there are comportments with cereal, slices of bread, spray cans with coffee, juice and cream, tubes with butter, honey, fruit jam, and fresh fruit at your disposal. Of course, all liquids are kept and served in squeeze bottles, because one cannot drink from on open con­ tainer in the weightless environment. Experi­ ments on eating and drinking during parabolic flights hove shown that the liquid floats out of the glass and hits the face with a splash just by lifting the container; thus it is possible to drown in your own cup of coffee because the liquid disperses upon contact like at an ex­ plosion and slips into your respiratory tract with the whiff of a breath. You won't have to adjust your seat from the sleeping to the sitting position, for the tray is not going to foll off your lap. Thus, you will bring up your knees to anchor your breakfast tray, open the lid on your side, and start preparing the food. You reach inside, squeeze the contents of your butter tube on the freshly toasted bread so that it sticks, distribute it without any difficulty, for you have already learned to control your movements, and spray a layer of honey on top, taking care not to let it float too high up, because it may be glued against the cover of the buffet box. Then you take the coffee bottle from its holder, open it carefully so that noth­ ing floats out, put some lumps of sugar in, squeeze in some cream, shake and mix the ingredients and then press the button while holding the container between your lips. You can chew and swallow without much effort, because both activities are not affected by the lack of weight. The elastic forces of the peristalsis take core of the rest and transports the food through the body. It's better to hove your eggs boiled rather than fried or scram• bled, because the lotter procedures may prove somewhat difficult. We still ore working on a frying pan that would do the trick. Boiling seems to be easier. If you don't shake your electric cooker, which hos some special fea­ tures to be patented, you con boil things in it without trouble. Handling medium boiled eggs may be somewhat messy, you would do well to ask for the hard ones which you con chew, or the soft ones which you can suck out of the shell. You may not have to go to the restroom so often as on Earth since the contents of your stomach, intestines, and bladder ore weightless and will not trigger so easily the reflexes that give you the feeling of an urgent need. But getting off your choir demands some caution. First, you will press your suc­ tion type shoes against the floor, get out of your harness, keep your hands on the roil and move slowly, bit by bit, to the restroom door. Once in the restroom, you ore confronted with another problem. You must rely on closed and sealing containers for your relief, which withdraw and seal whatever leaves your body. Waste bogs will be available for this. The lavatory facilities are already a headache on our present-day airliners; and in a Space vehicle the commodities most probably will be under par. Washing your hands can be accomplished only in a transparent water sock. You will stick them through two elastic rubber valves which seal your wrists, push the water inlet pressure button, the soap squeezer, clean your hands, and finally force the water out by a suction pump. During all these maneuvers, your feet will be solidly held to the floor by a mechanical device. You dry your hands on a towel and store it properly. As to the elimination of all waste products, it must be done because of the hygiene and comfort of fellow passengers and done with respect to moss alterations within the ship, which might be brought out of course or orbit. Hence, not all of the trip is pleasant. Toke Johnny, for instance. He is slowly turning pole and green in his corner; and his father has already signaled to the stewardess that something is wrong. About 20 percent of the passengers in our parabolic flights become sick; and females and youngsters will prob­ ably become ill with gastro-intestinal symp­ toms during weightlessness, if the present statistics on motion sickness hold true for Space sickness. By swaying, floating and moving about, one arouses the perceptual mechanisms that register the position, motion, and support of the body under both weight 43 space journal �and nonweight conditions. Now, under the latter, the sense organs for maintaining equili­ brium and orientation send signals which actually confuse the Space traveler to his brain. Thus, he vomits and has some trouble catching everything floating around and stor­ ing it in the "burp" bag. Our pilots are hardly ever plagued by this type of Space sickness. They have been exposed to weightlessness and changing ac­ celerations so many times that they are familiar with it. They have their instruments which indicate the vehicle's position and atti­ tude relative to Earth. Our pilot has been fired into the air; and is now supervising the instruments which guide the ship along its predetermined course. On one hand he is completely on his own; but on the other hand, he is not. He cannot leave or land his ship in case of emergency because he is beyond his point of return. He must make it or ask for help from the base to which he is steering. He will be told from there what to do. In this stage of the flight, there is no input or feedback of the controls. As a matter of fact, monitoring and firing of the gimbal-mounted steering rockets have nothing in common with the conventional type flying. He calmly checks his instruments; everything goes as programmed. He is now flying with the cockpit extended; it was telescoped inside of the hull during penetration of the atmos­ phere. There is no flying by the seat of the pants during weightlessness, nor any sensation of lift or drag on the ship. As a matter of fact, his control surfaces ore idle. Gliding through Space is nothing but a push-button affair and an eerie kind of locomotion. For landing on the Moon he needs little more than his broke rockets. This will stabilize the ship and restore the weight. Only when he plunges back into Earth's atmosphere will his flying skill be required. Moon is now just in front of the vehicle. You look up from your journal which hangs in the air by itself with the pages extended, slowly drifting away in the stream of circulated air, and listen to the announcement over the intercom giving the ship's latest position. The picture on the television in the passenger compartment shows the Moon's huge, brj.ght, Sun-lit cap on the velvet-black background of 44 space journal the star-speckled sky. There is no sensation of motion, and you-resting in absolute weightlessness-have the feeling of being suspended in between these un-blinking stars. The radio is silent; and only the soft hum from the vents which circulates the air inside of the cabin is still audible in the silence of Space. You feel physically relaxed, but otherwise somewhat uneasy in this seemingly unreal situ­ ation. The stewardess removes her cap, and her long hair stands straight up, slowly drifting back and forth in the air stream of the re­ cycling fans. Your hands start sweating. So you pull the sprayer from your bag, wet them with cologne, and wipe it off with the hand­ kerchief. Then you toke a cigarette and snap your lighter in vain, and-forgetting where you are--you try it again until it occurs to you that no flame will burn in zero-gravity. Therefore you ignite the cigarette with the electric lighter and puff, completely uncon­ cerned about the possibility of dropping the ashes. The end of our make-believe trip brings up on important point: the conditioning and training of future Space travelers. Elaborate propulsion and training devices have been suggested by experts for training the crew and passengers. They ore based correctly on the assumption that man must be adopted to the zero-gravity condition and to the sensation of weightlessness. They should also be exposed to increasing and decreasing accelerations in order to adjust their feelings, coordinations, and performances to the effects of changing weight. In this respect, it is apparent that the best training available now will be achieved by parabolic flights in high-performance aircraft. Such flights will serve a double purpose. First, people who cannot stand the weightless con­ dition and the changing accelerations asso­ ciated with rocket travel will fail; and they will have to postpone their trip to the Moon until other modes of trovel ore available. Second, the ones who con stand it become conditioned and used to weightlessness, as well as to the means which protect them against potentially adverse effects of pro­ longed periods of weightlessness. We know that a man will fall to his death if he loses his balance at the rim of the Grand Canyon; �but instead of trying to increase his tolerance to falling, we provide him with the means which help him to prevent the accident. This principle must also be applied to the weight­ lessness associated with Space flight. An appropriate harness, foot rest, fixtures to put himself and his utilities in, suction-type shoes, handrails, and safely ropes will prevent float­ ing and involuntary movements of objects; and he must be trained in the skillful utilization of such devices for comfort and safety. The construction of these devices is no serious problem once we know what is going on in zero-gravity. We do a lot of things where we can fall and hurt ourselves: climbing on roofs and trees, riding and jumping on horse­ back, ploying football and driving a car a t high speed, creating enormous accelerations which often lead t o fatal accidents. We must not forget that weightlessness is o physically stressless situation which in itself does not involve any bodily harm or danger. If we observe the necessary precaution and adopt ourselves to its characteristics, it will provide us with luxury and pleasure not normally attainable on our planet. However, our Space travelers must be schooled in the reodoptotion to gravity from the weightless slate. We do not expect too much difficulty with this either, because this should even be more easily accomplished than his adjustment to zero-gravity. We ore accustomed to the gravitational force from birth, and we will snap back into it with ease and regret. To the seasoned Space man the return to Earth and its gravitational field will be a return to his original and familiar state. space food (cont. from p. 12) In actuality this idealized plan may re­ semble only remotely the system finally put to test in long and ever longer Space excur­ sions. But recent research in several fields has indicated that the man is likely to be both the weakest and the least readily changeable element in the closed-cycle system. Selection and preflight training will make significant contributions to the crewman's successful Space operation; but, fortune being what it is, he is still a man and as such must be maintained within rather narrow limits of pressure, temperature, humidity, pH, and nu­ trition even to stay alive. And for him to perform optimally, the limits must be moved still closer together. On the other hand, the remaining com­ ponents of the system are not so rigid. The algae provide a fitting research sub­ ject mainly for taxonomists and photosynthe­ sists, with a brief interlude of intense interest in their introduction as o field crop to be competitive at least with other animal feeds. In this melee, there has been but little attention given to the physiology of the algae and practically none to their functional char­ acteristics such as the production of oxygen or to their expected behavior in a small, closely coupled, dosed-cycle feeding system in a weightless environment. No one knows what would be revealed by a study of any substantial portion of the 40,000 kinds of algae which exist. There may be one in this group whose aquatic temperament is ideally suited to the slavish service required in the unremitting production of food for the Space man. The possibility also exists of finding a species better suited for use as human food than those presently known. Even less is known of the somewhat higher plants such as the ferns, lichens, and the like which, if they could be grown rapidly enough, would probably make for a drastic reduction in the water requirements of a closed-cycle system. It is conceivable that the interposition of animals capable of using the algae as food might serve to provide increased accept­ ability in the Space diet. The algae, daphnio, small fish diet sequence has been suggested as a simple possibility. Virtually nothing of a quantitative nature is known about this set of occurrences; and, with the exception af a pitifully small number of misguided college students who hove swallowed whole goldfish, nothing at all is known of the acceptability of the many, small-size, completely edible fish. Also, nothing very useful is known about their waste products, which would be cycled into the system were they to be an integral part of it. Instead of a concentration of 50 percent of algae as supposed in our ideal bio-conver­ ter, present possibilities are of the order of one to a few percent. This is in port due to 45 space journal �the limited availability of carbon dioxide and light but is as well dependent on ready access to nutrients. It would seem that the algae would grow at unheard of rotes and to very high densities if these difficulties could be overcome by the intimate mixing of the culture with carbon dioxide, light, and nutrients. So for, the success of this conjecture hos not been demonstrated. For one thing, metabolic water would ac­ cumulate in the system along with cellulose, methane, carbon monoxide, and polymerized or insoluble substances unless steps were taken to keep each one under control. The­ oretically, at least, all of these substances could be kept in the system by methods simi­ lar to those found in nature, the chief differ­ ences being in the size and the timing of the operations. Electrolytic breakdown of extra-metabolic water would produce easily usable oxygen and together with it, the dilemma of large quantities of hydrogen whose destination in the cycle is still in question. The use of a chemical analog of photo­ synthesis would hove real advantage only if it were self perpetuating. It might avoid all of the vagaries of mutation and might even simplify to some extent the nutrient require­ ments of the system. What such a change would do for the Spaceman's personal diet is difficult to guess. At present there are few if any completely synthetic foods and still fewer savory enough to compete with any success against naturally occurring foods. The body of scientists now working directly on Space feeding and nutrition is working effectively at a rote only attained by high motivation. But this motivation suffices, and their efforts will ultimately provide at least a partially closed Space feeding system by the time it is critically needed and, eventually, an ideal one for the long voyages of man into the remoter reaches of Outer Space. primitive fear (cont. from p. 18) uncertainty of the environment into specific problems. Roughly between six and four millennia ago, human rituals began to focus on seas, mountains and the sub-surface Earth. As in earlier extensions of awareness, specific events which threatened survival probably gave the necessary stimulus. 46 space journal Concern with the seas in the Near East con be ascribed to an identifiable cause. About 4000 B.C. water from the Persian Gulf ap­ pears to have welled up over the Mesopo­ tamian valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. It left Ur under 10 feet of mud and had a simi­ lar effect over an area 400 miles long and 100 miles wide. Since both the hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh and Noah were residents of the volley, the Epic and Biblical tales of survival have been attributed to this event. Some of the traditions of a great flood from Greece, Lithuania, India, Chino, Aus­ tralia, Polynesia and the Americas are of a similar age. The crustal, atmospheric or other causes of these catastrophic floods are un­ known today, and certainly were not under­ stood then. Human awareness of the larger threat to life may account for the worship of a sea-god, which in some places became pre­ eminent at that time. During the same period, our forebears were concerned with mountains and portrayed the fiery interior below Earth's surface. In the past, as at present, many volcanoes erupted and destroyed life. Such events may explain why volcanic mountains hove been objects of fear and propitiation. All moun­ tains may hove come to seem unpredictable and therefore sacred-the Himalayas, Mount Sinai and Mount Olympus among others. Crustal disturbances hove also occurred, probably more than once, at the series of chasms and depressions which have been grouped under the name of the African rift. These extend through East Africa, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aqoba, the plain of Sodom and Gomorrah, the Dead Sea, the Sea of Galilee, the River Jordan and into Syria. Evidence of eruptions of lava and frequent earthquakes hove been noted along this line. It is believed that Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed in about 1900 B.C. in on area now under water at the southern section of the Dead Sea. The destruction resulted from a great earthquake, which was probably ac­ companied by issue of natural gas, explosions and conflagration. Outpourings of lava from sections of the rift, as well as from volcanoes, may account for the fear of a burning hell below. Great as was the concern with terrestrial �forces, the celestial concern soon superseded it. Around the globe, communities began to worship a god high in the heavens. Earlier deities were relegated to subsidiary positions. Today, the Aborigines in Australia and Fue• gions in South America resemble more ad­ vanced civilizations in their search for ways to secure the favor of a sky-god. By the second millennium B.C. the vast idea that our world will end hod begun to spread. In vivid detail, our ancestors portrayed a fiery consummation of Earth. Many communities expanded their fertility rituals to include the larger environment. By sympathetic magic and extreme sacrifices, they sought to promote cosmic order. Among some peoples, altar offerings to heavenly deities included men, women and children. Others identified their priest-kings with the Sun. Through earnest service lo the king, they hoped to i;nsure a world without end. Some personified the sacred seven bodies with movements differing visibly from the stellar background. They sacrificed lo the Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. Others sought satisfaction in the philosophi­ cal denial of life itself, and on effort to achieve mystical union with the cosmos. Some envisaged a future life on other worlds in the heavens. In this period, too, birth and ofter-life rituals became much more intense. Maternity, nativity and the generative organs were cele­ brated in varied ways. Beginning shortly after 3000 B.C. preparation of megalithic tombs for the ofter-life become a central activity for many peoples. By these means, men may hove sought to defy the greater challenges to survival which they recognized in the larger environment. The orientation and intensity of these rites suggest that something ottrocted our fore­ bears' keenest attention to the cosmic environ­ ment. Each previous focus of ritual hod a practical basis-from the large to the small game, rain, rivers, fertility, mole cattle, seas, mountains, Earth's molten interior, and others. While the responses of prescientific peoples were necessarily symbolic, they all constituted attempts to cope with problems of survival. Religious practices directed toward the heavens hove likewise been symbolic; but it is reasonable to suppose that they also origi­ nated in vital concerns. The source of concern, however, is difficult to establish. Judging only from the words of our ancestors, celestial disturbances occurred sufficiently close to affect Earth. Sacred, epic and historical documents from many ancient civilizations tell of such events. Many explanations for these accounts hove been offered. Theories range from solar eclipses, comets, polar toppling, or local catastrophes to Velikovsky's popular interpre­ tation (World in Collision, Doubleday, 1950). The correct explanation has yet lo be agreed­ upon. In the present slate of science, celestial events of the post cannot be as readily identi­ fied as can geological ones. One of the few modern clues is the dwindling of comets in the Solar system. These bodies were more common in ancient times than they ore now. By measuring the present role of decline in cometary luminosity, Russian astronomer S. K. Vsekhsviotsky has developed the theory that they originated a few thousand years ago. An event within the Solar System, which started the comets, could have hod effects on Earth; or it could have appeared to threaten to do so. Whatever the causes, on orientation toward the sky did develop in ancient times. Men devised a variety of ways to cope with cosmic uncertainties. Their beliefs hove helped to form the civilizations current today. Peoples on Earth still carry on a wide variety of rites directed toward the heavens. Approaches to the cosmos, expressed in some of the reli­ gions of the period of written history, are the subject of the next article. space and the law (cont. from p. 20) Below these zones, states would exercise com­ plete sovereignty. Unfortunately, the practi­ cability of such a system is doubtful. The diffi­ culties encountered in resolving conflicts over the extent of territorial waters still loom too large to convince us that territorial Space would be the ideal solution. Should the status of Space be agreed upon soon, con we then proceed to develop a com­ prehensive legal code to govern it? This ques­ tion hos to be answered with due regard to the realities of international law and its sources. 47 space journal �Essentially, international law consists of principles established by time-tested customs or by treaties. Low based upon custom re­ quires, by its very nature, lengthy periods of time to evolve and crystallize. The other source of international law, the treaty, is by far the more expedient one in terms of time, depend­ ing upon the ability of states to arrive at a common formula. Space, as a new thing in international law, may coll for either way of originating applicable rules. The choice of source will largely rest upon the urgency for creating a system of Space low. Should the future dictate o pragmatic legal approach to Space whereby specific problems would be dealt with individually, then we may look forward to a slow and often painful emergence of Space low. It goes without saying that legal remedies developed in this way may come at times too late to be profitable in a dispute in Space and with possible disastrous consequences to the world as a whole. On the other hand, while law is sometimes issued in anticipation of situations that might arise, rarely hove lawmakers been in favor of bringing forth laws to meet unforeseeable complications. They have preferred to tread on familiar and tested grounds rather than stand the risk of providing an inadequate and impractical system of law in a new area of human venture. Legislation based on specula­ tive contemplation of legal problems may often have more harmful consequences than a gap in the law. Hence, the evolution of a Space code will undoubtedly have to wait until such time as the nature of Space and man's role in it are thoroughly explored and ascertained. So long as we are unable lo foresee the full legal implications involved in human activity in Space, it would indeed be premature and presumptuous to devise rules and regulations purporting to constitute a Space code. It is more likely that concurrently with scientific progress in Space, law providing us with partial solutions will come into existence. Dr. E. Pepin, director of the Institute of Interna­ tional Air Law, commenting on the role of lawyers in the age of Space, put the matter in its proper perspective saying: "I was and still am of the opinion that they (the lawyers) should not impair the scientific progress by 48 space journal discussing abstract legal principles; but they should try to establish, if necessary, new prin­ ciples which may facilitate the task of scien­ tists." Our venture into Space will eventually call for the creation of on appropriate interna­ tional agency with adequate machinery to regulate, through legislation, our activities in this new area. If ever freedom of Space is to be fully realized without resulting chaos, we will have to make a centralized effort to co­ ordinate the development of Space law. Though it is too early to attempt the formula­ tion of a Space code, we may nevertheless establish the framework of broader principles discussed above. We may already equip ourselves with the necessary machinery to carry out the basic research preceding a state­ ment of Space law. When Space rules do come into existence, they will have to be periodically revised so as to copform with constant technological developments. A flexi­ ble method for making changes in Space legislation will have to be adopted. The experience gained by the International Civil Aviation Organization in regulating airspace can certainly be put into use also for Space. As in the case of this organization, an inter­ national Space convention might establish a Space agency and entrust it with the power to supplement and interpret the broad prin­ ciples contained in the conveation itself. The ICAO successfully employs such o technique and it has devised special codes for the use of civil aviation, entitled "Annexes" to the Chicago convention. These annexes are re­ vised and replaced by the organization in conformity with shifting needs. The flexibility that such a system affords will prove to be especially valuable in the initial stages of Space exploration when science and experi­ ence will frequently change our concepts and practices. These are, in brief, some of the legal prob­ lems which may arise in the coming Space age. Should we succeed in making Space the domain of mankind as a whole, we can look forward to unprecedented progress and fruit­ ful cooperation between nations. We hope that man's folly on Earth will not be carried into the cosmos. Space is awaiting us, but surely it is not eager that we project into it our earthly skirmishes and endless conflicts. �GIVE SPACE Journal for CHRISTMAS AND YOU GIVE A GIFT THAT IS REMEMBERED ALL YEAR ORDER SPACE SPACE Journal is six gifts in one announced with a personalized Christmas card, followed every other month with the latest in Journal CHRISTMAS GIFTS NOW! First 1-year gift $3 each, add'I 1-year gift $2 . space and missile developments a year long reminder of YOUR thoughtfulness. NAME _________ ADDRESS _____ MY NAME ________ ____,,.DDRESS ________ CITY ______ ZONE __ STATE ____ CITY _ □ ENTER GIFT CARD FRO�----------NAME --------------- _______ _ _ □ O RENEW MY OWN (BEGINS WHEN PRESENT EXPIRES) All GIFTS NEW □ SOME RENEW ADDRESS ______________TOTAL NO Of SUBSCRIPTIONS ___ SPACE Journal 316 HOWERTON NASHVILLE, TENN. CITY ______ ZONE __ STATE ____ $ ____�NCLOSED GIFT CARD FRO��----------- □ Bill ENTER ADDITIONAL SUBSCRIPTIONS ON SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER. ME �LET AIR FORCE EXPERTS GIVE YOU the basic background needed for GUIDED MISSILE DESIGN Explains and illustrates Herc is a full, authoritative survey of guided missiles and their components-how they work, what goes into them, their theoretical foundations. how they are checked and tested, how they are used! Prepared by Air Force specialists-and written in un­ complicated, down-to-earth language--this book gives you a background in funda­ mentals that will aid you in the design or manufacture of missile components. You will find in its 546 over-size pages a vast storehouse of theory, facts, and formulas -with more than 500 specially made drawings, charts, and diagrams illustrat­ ing every major point. GUIDED MISSILES OPERATIONS, DESIGN, AND THEORY Sponsored by the Department of the Air Force ,_;,h a Fore"ord by Lieutenant General CIJ ,\RLE:-i T. M) f.Rg, C.S. \.F. 546 poges, 812 x 11, 500 illustrations, $9.00 Thi,- manual cove� evernhinK about a-uided mi�il� Crom t.heir hi�tQry to ini,1trumentation and tactic& of thC"ir use 1 It. treau is clPar detail the aerody. na.mic1J end propulsion of guided mis:-.iles. R!'i well as the phy,ica involved in guided rnis�ile des.hen. There is a complete technical run•down on the various component� of control �yatem!-, pl11� clear treatment of the heart of the mis<:.ile control "'YJ\tem-the jfyr°"cope. You 1ret facts on pneumatic and pneumatic.electric control &yat.ema, and on hydraulic-electric. el(•('tric, and 3uxili&ey :--ystem!'I. Similiar attention iff given to the com­ ponentJI and operation of guidanee "'Yl'llem�. Doth �hort- nnd lon.l!t-tanl{e Kystem.s are fli,.,Clli<led, with !.U'<'linn� on terminal guid­ ance and comr,011ite :1-yl'Jl�ml\. An excep­ tionally inlcrt:.'1-tini( chapter on guided. miii· sile taNi<'s deals "'fth Much topie!i 811 surrace tarsret ,.,eJection . . . Aerial tara'et romdderptions . . . mi��il€! watheadl!I . • • launching fitl"l', etc. The Anal chapter of tht- bo"k cove� internal and external tele,... meterinJC mt-thod,. �hows you how to 1tet telemetering dJ\lll into u"-able form. and diaeu '"e!I: dire.-t recording instrumentation. Application of nuclear power to rocket flight This book presents a comprehen­ sive. definitive picture of the essen­ tial aspects of the field of nuclear 1·ocket propulsion. Primarily, the book is a fusion of important technology from both the reactor engineering field and the missile engineering field. The fundamentals of rocket performance, a systems ap­ proach to over-all missile perfomrnnce, heat exchange and fluid flow, reactor fuel elements, thermal stress and strain, reactor kinetic behavior, gamma- and neutron-heating and -shielding problems, the requirements for reactor start-up, and the testing of nuclear rockets and rocket motors are some of the important topics discussed by the authors. The sections on heat transfer. materials. nucleonics and control will be of special interest to all those concerned with high power density reactor design (including all mobile reactors and some ground power reactors). NUCLEAR ROCKET PROPULSION By R. W. BUSSARD and R. D. DeLAUER Los Alamos Scientific T.,anoratory, L' n i1·e1·Rify of California 37S pages, 6 x 9, 166 illustrations and tables, $10.S0 This book presents to the engineering man a sound basis for understanding the engineering problems of mobile (flyable) reactor systems, problems that cover such areas as heat generation and removal, fluid distribution, and flow and structural integrity of the rocket itself. The author's presentation is primarily descriptive: the fundamentals in each area are given without extensive mathe­ matical proofs. but realistic physical bases are provided for all analyses. Theory and practice of sounding rocket operations The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive redew of the important rockets used for high al­ titude research, particularly geophysical and solar research. The book covers all the principal upper air sounding rockets of the U. S., England, France, and Japan. The period of activity covered is from the end of World War II, when upper air rocket sounding began, to the start of the International G<:ophysical Year. The book is sufficiently technical to make it useful to professionals in the field, yet it will also be informative to the beginner in research rocketry. Send Your Order with Remittance to: SPACE BOOKS 316 Howerton Nashville, Tenn. SOUNDING ROCKETS By Homer E. i\'ewell, Jr. ['.S. Natinnal ,lero11a11tirs and Space Administration 334 pages, 6 x 9, 190 illustrations and tables, $12.50 Es!-entially, the book brinsrs you &\'ailab1e data. on high.altitude rocket theory, hhrh• altitude research results. details of indi• viduaJ rockets, current handlinst and launching procedu�. instrumentation tech­ nique!'!, special faciHties required plw a concise com1ideration of the propOti-ed •ounding rocket.8 of the future. For t>xamp)e, the author and the book'& ni1tt­ tun contributinar authorities take up Kuch poinL"'I as entropy nnd adiabatic procei-,:;etiJ involved in sounding rockets. result!. ob­ taine<l from rocket iounding�. and the place ancl e!Tectl! of sounding rockets in military re,earch. lncluded in the di�CU"Sion are auch vital topics as the Aerobee r0<:lcet _ . . the Aerobee--Hi rocket . . . Ot>acon and Cajun • . . ASP ••• Loki-WASP . . . balloon. launched rockets for high-altitude re!'learch . . . aircrall-launched rcx-ke� . • . Nike-­ ca.jun and Nike-deacon .•. Jhiti.sb, French. and Japan�e M>unding rockets . . . facili• ties for the ftrin2 of Mounding l"OC'kets ... ,rnd artificial eatelliteis ot the Earth. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 2, no. 2, December 1959. Description An account of the resource In this issue, articles focus heavily on the exploration of space and the particulars of human activities in space, including "the space man's food," research on how weightlessness affects the human body, and the lack of laws governing space. Also included is a profile of Roy Marquardt, "the ramjet man" and founder of Marquardt Aircraft Company. This is the final published issue of <i>Space Journal</i>. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Space Enterprises, Inc. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-12 Language A language of the resource en Type The nature or genre of the resource Periodicals Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spc_mitc_063_113 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Astronauts--Nutrition Atlas (Missile) Cold War Gravity--Physiological effect Outer space--Exploration Rockets (Aeronautics)--Ramjet engines Space law United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Space race--United States--History--20th century Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/892/marshallstar_19680529_001.pdf 0751f061fc1f173d2ee8d0f57acfd0a8 PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context marshallstar_19680529_001 Title A name given to the resource "14 Employees Graduated With First UAH Class." Description An account of the resource Clipping from the <i> Marshall Star</i>, May 29, 1968, vol. 8, no. 36. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <i>Marshall Star</i> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1968-05-29 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Aeronautical engineers Commencement ceremonies Engineers in government George C. Marshall Space Flight Center University of Alabama in Huntsville Huntsville (Ala.) Madison County (Ala.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Clippings Newspapers Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection <i>Marshall Star</i>, box 1967-1970 University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Provenance A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource. This item was digitized for the Apollo 11 50th anniversary celebration. Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource ap11_exhibit_2019_08 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/893/redstonerocket_19540302.pdf 84000960c040089085599a2f1356f9fc PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context redstonerocket_19540302 Title A name given to the resource "Haskins Makes Quick Change from Civilian Ph.D. to Pfc." Description An account of the resource Clipping from the <i>Redstone Rocket</i>, March 2, 1954. The article highlights Haskins' background as a physicist and his role in the 9330 Technical Service Unit. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <i>Redstone Rocket</i> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954-03-02 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Haskins, Richard Military engineers Physicists--United States Huntsville (Ala.) Redstone Arsenal (Ala.) Madison County (Ala.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Clippings Newspapers Still Image Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Provenance A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource. This item was digitized for the Apollo 11 50th anniversary celebration. Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource ap11_exhibit_2019_08 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/43/926/spc_mitc_000048.pdf b0aa4727253127af83a1e43d58339952 PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Serials Collection Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Serials Collection Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spc_mitc_000048 Title A name given to the resource Map of "Village on the Moon for Scientists and Visitors," from <i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 4, Fall 1958. Description An account of the resource Japanese architect and engineer Hiroshi Kumagai drew this map of a moon base to accompany his article "A Proposal for a Village on the Moon." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kumagai, Hiroshi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1950-1959 Subject The topic of the resource Lunar bases Moon--Exploration Type The nature or genre of the resource Diagrams Maps Still Image Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials Collection University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Has Format A related resource that is substantially the same as the pre-existing described resource, but in another format. <a href="http://libarchstor2.uah.edu/digitalcollections/items/show/513"><i>Space Journal</i>, vol. 1, no. 4, Fall 1958</a> Provenance A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource. This item was digitized for the Apollo 11 50th anniversary celebration. Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource ap11_exhibit_2019_08 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3120/spacebusinessdaily_19651101.pdf ca2124e5d1df6eebe742cb6a60bc6371 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651101 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 1, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 1 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include ComSat's Apollo satelite, upcoming Gemini flights, the Voyager contract, the scheduling of the first flight test of the French SSBS, Lockheed Missile &amp; Space's contract to study possible countermeasures against anti-missles, planned nuclear engine test activities, the launch of the Geodetic Explorer XXIX, the first underwater missiles delivered to the Navy, the developmet of "Dynaflare" for the Saturn program, and Department of Defense contracts. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-01 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3121/spacebusinessdaily_19651102.pdf eab4a5893f107e325bc6080095aa24c8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651102 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 2, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 2 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include the acceleration of Soviet space testing activities, requests for advanced satellite tracking studies, the first flight model of the French satellite family, Gemini VI and VII, upcoming conferences, financial backlogs, earnings, and sales changes, contracts awarded, and several negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-02 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Still Image Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3122/spacebusinessdaily_19651103.pdf 3c02cbafeed4675f69d5f3a3059723fa Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651103 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 3, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 3 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include the Apollo-support satellite system, the first manned Apollo flight scheduled, Soviet space acttivities, financial information, upcoming conferences, the future of space satellite systems, contracts awarded, and negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-03 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3123/spacebusinessdaily_19651104.pdf 80088024ef111a42b9adbc0d2d51390e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651104 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 4, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 4 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include Soviet communication with France, a delay in the Surveyor landing schedule, the missile launch detections systems (the MIDAS program), parachute testing for the Apollo program, laser technology, upcoming conferences, contracts awarded, and negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-04 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3124/spacebusinessdaily_19651105.pdf 67511bbf483f6c60e6d6cea289c7631e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651105 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 5, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 5 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include the development of a anti-tank missile, an update on the Gemini VII and VI rendezvous mission, Soviet space activities, the launch of a French Vesta rocket, financial information, new grants, current studies, DOD contracts and negotiations, and a comparison of major space "firsts" achieved by the U.S. and the Soviet. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-05 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3125/spacebusinessdaily_19651109.pdf 8b22b2dfd84a20ca4bbb3179832c20ed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651109 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 9, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 7 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include upcoming demonstrations of CLAM propulsion concepts and new rocket nozzle systems, the upcoming launch of France's first satellite, considerations of a manned Mars flyby in the coming decade, Apollo heat shields, the launch of the first NASA gravity graadient stabilized spacecraft, economical information, a summary of NASA's advanced study program, and DOD and NASA negotiations and contracts. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-09 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3126/spacebusinessdaily_19651110.pdf d9f9bdd118781e12028ddf8231eb3788 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651110 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 10, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 8 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include an lunar orbital survey, Explorer-class satellites, the MIDAS program, French space activities, the next Gemini flight scheduled, economic information, contracts and grants awarded, and DOD and NASA negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-10 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3127/spacebusinessdaily_19651112.pdf da9f255df05db88fe66d59877001b083 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651112 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 12, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 9 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include the ComSat Apollo system, plans for a direct FM broadcast satellite, satellite communications and weather systems, the development of the Gemini pressure suit, upcoming banquets and conferences, the study of slush hydrogen as possible fuel source, the Gemini IX mission, and DOD and NASA contracts and negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-12 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3128/spacebusinessdaily_19651115.pdf 0ca19d43377c474f96ab5328bef7d9ee Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651115 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 15, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 10 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include missile systems, proposals for the direct FM broadcast satellite, resistojet and raidoisotope rocket engine concepts for preliminary design development for the Manned Orbiting Research Laboratory, new power systems, the launch of the Soviet Venus probe, Soviet manned space tests activities, the escalation of troops in Vietnam, Wernher von Braun proposes one-way Mars mission in 1984, the naming of the MOL astronauts, upcoming tests and launches, economic information, a solar cell rejuvenator, future space business, and DOD and NASA contracts and negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-15 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections. https://digitalprojects.uah.edu/files/original/194/3129/spacebusinessdaily_19651116.pdf 12c2b2dad4939bfdd7d57ee7bfd98159 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <em>Space Business Daily</em> Title A name given to the resource <em>Space Business Daily</em> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context spacebusinessdaily_19651116 Title A name given to the resource <i>Space Business Daily</i>, November 16, 1965. Description An account of the resource This is Vol. 23, No. 11 of Space Business Daily, a Space Publications newsletter. Topics include French-Soviet space cooperation plans, direct FM broadcast satellite, modifications of the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle, testing of the Stellar Inertial Guidance System, Gemini recovery operations, economic changes and stock information, the U.S.-Argentine space cooperation, and DOD and NASA contracts and negotiations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baker, Norman L., 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-11-16 Temporal Coverage Temporal characteristics of the resource. 1960-1969 Subject The topic of the resource Project Apollo (U.S.) Serial publications Space flight Space race Washington (D.C.) Type The nature or genre of the resource Newsletters Text Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Serials University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives, Special Collections, and Digital Initiatives, Huntsville, Alabama Language A language of the resource en Relation A related resource spc_businessdaily_2021_02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This material may be protected under U. S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code) which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research. Though the University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections has physical ownership of the material in its collections, in some cases we may not own the copyright to the material. It is the patron's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in our collections.